Almaz-T

Meanwhile Phase 2 of the Almaz project continued, with the Central Committee of the Communist Party and Council of Soviet Ministers Decree 476-13 'On course of work on Almaz and the TKS' being issued on 19 January 1976. Six full-up TKS flight spacecraft were originally planned, together with nine separate unpiloted launches of the VA capsule. Two unmanned TKS flights would be followed by four manned missions (later changed to five manned flights). The decree set forth the following program for completion of Almaz Phase 1 and Phase 2:

• First quarter 1976 - Unmanned flight tests of VA capsule
• Second quarter 1976 - Completion of draft project of OPS with two docking ports for service by rotating crews
• End 1976 - Unmanned flight tests of TKS
• End 1977 - End of Phase 1 with flight of OPS-3
• End 1977 - First flight test of OPS-4 with two docking ports with return capsule on front port
• End 1978 - Manned TKS flights
• End 1980 - Acceptance into service of OPS/TKS/VA systems

However soon after this decree was issued Marshal Grechko suffered a heart attack. With this Chelomei lost his most active patron and was unable to withstand the slow strangulation of his projects by Ustinov and Glushko.

VA capsules would be tested two at a time in the special 82LB72 Proton booster configuration. The original two-launch program had been expanded to five launches of two capsules in the LVI housing. The last two launches in 1978 were to be manned. The plan was:

The VA capsule had a hypersonic lift to drag ratio of 0.25, allowing it to generate lift during re-entry. This allowed the BSU-V manned capsule guidance system to manoeuvre the spacecraft to its landing point using the optimum path for minimal heating and G-forces. The reusable heat shield material developed for the VA was far superior to that used on the Soyuz capsule and was used as well on Chelomei’s K-1 and LKS manned spacecraft designs. The SAS system abort system for the VA separated the capsule with 15 G's of acceleration from the booster in case of a malfunction and soft landed the capsule 1.0-1.5 km from the launch pad. In the lab the 92-2 LVI mock-up was used to test automatic systems, conduct trials tests, use of the TDU engine at the centre of mass, hermetic sealing of the LVI section, and separation of the DU.

Salyut 5 - Completion of Almaz Phase 1

The second successful Almaz phase 1 flight, Salyut 5, was launched on 22 June 1976. It had taken only 60 days and 1450 man-hours to prepare Almaz 0101-2 for flight, using the services of 368 officers and 337 non-commissioned officers. The station operated for 409 days, during which the crews of Soyuz 22 and 24 visited the station. The tracking ships Academician Sergei Korolev and Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin were stationed in the Atlantic and Caribbean to provide communications when out of tracking range of the USSR.

Soyuz 23 was to have docked but its long-distance rendezvous system failed. Soyuz 25 was planned, but the mission would have been incomplete due to low orientation fuel on Salyut 5, so it was cancelled. The film capsule was recovered 22 February 1977 (and sold at Sotheby's, New York, on December 11, 1993!). The station was deorbited on 8 August 1977.

Soyuz 21 with Volynov and Zholobov aboard hard-docked with the station on 6 July 1976 after failure of the Igla system at the last stage of rendezvous. Towards end of the two month mission an early return to earth was requested due to the poor condition of flight engineer Zholobov (who was suffering from space sickness and psychological problems). The crew landed in very bad physical and mental condition 200 km SW of Kokchetav on August 25, 1976 at 18:33 GMT. It was determined that they had become emotional, not followed their physical training, and developed an unreasonable desire to return to earth. The possibility also existed that there were toxic gases in the station.

The hard-luck flights continued with Soyuz 23 on 14 October 1976. The ferry spacecraft, with Rozhdestvensky and Zudov aboard, suffered a docking system failure. Sensors indicated an incorrect lateral velocity, causing unnecessary firing of the thrusters during rendezvous. The automatic system was turned off, but no fuel remained for a manual docking by the crew of . The capsule landed in Lake Tengiz in -20 deg C conditions in a snowstorm. The wet parachute filled and dragged the capsule below the surface, cooling the capsule. Heating systems had to be turned in the capsule to conserve battery power. Amphibious vehicles attempted to recover the spacecraft but could not reach it. Finally swimmers managed to attach a cable to a helicopter. The capsule was dragged for kilometres across the icy sea. Only in the morning was the crew able to emerge from the capsule. The recovery crews were surprised they were still alive.

Soyuz 24 brought repair equipment and equipment for a change of cabin atmosphere. This special apparatus was designed to allow the entire station to be vented through the EVA airlock. Because of this the planned EVA was cancelled. However analysis after arrival showed no toxins in the air. The crew changed the cabin air anyway, then returned to earth. The mission, although a short 18 days, was characterised as busy and successful mission, accomplishing nearly as much as the earlier Soyuz 21's 50 day mission. The Soyuz was recovered February 25, 1977 9:38 GMT 37 km NE Arkalyk. The KSI film return capsule followed them a day later and was recovered successfully. It was sold at Sotheby's in 1993 and is now in the US National Air and Space Museum.

As on Salyut 3, during the flight of Salyut 5 a 'parallel crew' was aboard a duplicate station on the ground. They conducted the same operations in support of over 300 astrophysical, geophysical, technological, and medical/biological experiments. Astrophysics studies included an infrared telescope-spectrometer in the 2-15 micrometer range which also obtained solar spectra. Earth resources studies were conducted as well as Kristall, Potok, Diffuziya, Sfera, and Reatsiya technology experiments. Presumably Salyut 5 was equipped with a SAR side-looking radar for reconnaissance of land and sea targets even through cloud cover.

A third crew was to be launched to the station aboard Soyuz 25 but the flight was cancelled. It seemed that propellant reserves aboard the station had dipped too low to support another mission; in the opinion of Glushko (Mishin's successor). He therefore refused to ready another Soyuz for the mission. The spacecraft allocated for Soyuz-25 flew as Soyuz 30 to a civilian Salyut station.

This marked the end of Almaz Phase 1 and a state commission reviewed the results. The P-100 antenna demonstrated radio communications and photo television transmission of information to within 4 deg of the horizon (7 deg specification) at ranges of up to 1500 km . Photographic resolution was 15 to 20 lines/mm. The Pechora-1 television imagery transmission system worked well. All communications demonstrated, including: relay of data via Molniya-1 satellite when the station was out of sight of the USSR; automated processing of telemetry; and clear television downlink to the TsUP ground control centre and Ostankino tracking centre. Stage 1 trials were therefore declared to be successfully completed and decrees 46-13 of 19 January 1976 and 534-165 of 27 July 1996 allowed long-term use of station to proceed. Articles 104 and 105 released for use as production Almaz-2 stations.

However the overall results of the Salyut 3 and 5 flights were said to have demonstrated to the Soviet military that manned reconnaissance was not worth the expense. There was minimal time to operate the equipment after the crew took the necessary time for maintenance of station housekeeping and environmental control systems. The experiments themselves showed good results and especially the value of reconnaissance of the same location in many different spectral bands and parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. However this technology could best be exploited on unmanned satellites.

Almaz Phase 2 Tests Begin

10 December 1976 the first Proton 82LB72 VA test vehicle was placed on the pad. The VA capsules included the Probki radioactive sensor system within the Kaktus gamma ray altimeter, which set off the DU braking unit for a soft landing of the capsule. In place of space suits telemetry equipment was installed.

Launch of mission LVI-1 came at 04:00 on 15 December. At 176 seconds the ADU escape tower separated from the LVI. Once the final stage had shut down in orbit, by command from the launch vehicle sequencer, the VA 009A (also given as 009P) and its TDU separated from the LVI. Two seconds later VA 009 (or 009L) was ejected. Fifteen minutes after launch all systems of the both VA capsules were in operation. The guidance system detected the direction of flight and oriented each spacecraft for retro-fire, and the pair began the return to earth after less than one revolution. At an external atmospheric pressure of 165 mm (10 km altitude) the NO section jettisoned, the three-cupola drogue parachute ejected, and the antennae and altimeter were deployed. The Komara landing radio beacon (installed on the landing section of the parachute) was activated when the spacecraft was 1.0 to 1.5 m above the ground - which occurred at the same moment on both 009 and 009A. The Kaktus special system tripped the soft landing PRSP (parachute landing propulsion system). The soft landing was accomplished with higher accuracy than Soyuz, both capsules being recovered at 44 deg N, 73 deg E, on December 15, 1976 3:00 GMT. The flights were officially given the designations Cosmos 881 (VA 009A) and Cosmos 882 (VA 009). US intelligence believed them to be tests of recoverable manned spaceplane prototypes.

While the tests of the VA were behind schedule, the first complete TKS was delivered to Baikonur at the beginning of 1977 and launched on 17 July 1977 as Cosmos 929. The TKS manoeuvred extensively, making orbital altitude changes equivalent to a total of nearly 300 m/s of delta V. The VA capsule (serial number given as 009) returned to earth August 16, 1977. The FGB of the TKS remained in controlled flight until it was deorbited on February 2, 1978 after 201 days aloft.

The next LVI-2 VA test came a month later, on 2 August. A repeat test of the VA capsules from LVI-1 were atop the Proton (VA's 009P and 009L). However the booster failed at 49 seconds after launch. The SAS launch escape system pulled the top capsule (009P) away from the exploding Proton rocket and it was successfully recovered. The lower capsule was lost with the booster.:

Given the circumstances the plans to crew the upper VA in the next test was abandoned. LVI-3 (VA's 102P and 102L / Cosmos 997 and Cosmos 998) was launched unmanned four months behind the original schedule on 30 March 1978. Both capsules were recovered after one orbit. One source indicates that one of the capsules was 009P, on its third launch and second flight to orbit. This was said to have demonstrated the multiple re-entry capability of the heat shield and the first planned reuse of a spacecraft (Gemini 2 was refurbished and reflown as MOL-1 in the 1960's, but was not designed for that purpose).

On 15 August 1978 a VA integrity test was conducted at the large vacuum chamber at Monino with cosmonaut Sergei Vladimirovich Chelomei (son of the chief designer) suited in the capsule. At the beginning of the test a valve opened in his helmet. His suit protracted him from a deep vacuum as designed by pumping oxygen at a high rate to match the loss through the helmet. Although the chamber was repressurised barely in time, Chelomei survived the incident.

On 20 April 1979 LVI-4 VA (VA s/n 103 and s/n 008) was awaiting launch. The booster ignited, but then shut down on the pad. This triggered the launch escape system, which pulled the top capsule away from the booster. The parachute system failed and the capsule crashed to the ground. The lower capsule remained in the rocket. The top capsule was to have been manned, but the inability to demonstrate two consecutive failure-free launches of the Proton/TKS-VA combination made that (luckily) impossible.:

The launch vehicle was undamaged, and just a month later, with a switch of payload, LVI-4 was orbited as Cosmos 1100 and 1101 on 23 May 1979. The pair launched were the 102P/102L twins from LVI-3. One capsule failed when the automatic system suffered an electrical distribution failure and it did not land correctly, spending two orbits in space, while the other landed as planned after one orbit. The launch again successfully demonstrated the reusability of the VA capsule.

Almaz Phase 2 Cancelled

Chelomei felt that development of the TKS was given second priority to construction of additional DOS civilian stations by V Bugaiskiy (chief designer of NPO Mashinostroyeniya's Branch Number 1 in Fili, responsible for the FGB module). The Fili branch had developed close ties with NPO Energia and as a result of their collaboration on the DOS programme. It was only after Bugaiskiy's replacement by D Polukhin that the TKS programme was accelerated. But the damage had been done - by the time Almaz 104 would be ready for launch the TKS would still not be man-rated.

Almaz OPS-4 was originally to be built with a single docking port for the TKS. The first TKS launched to the station would also have carried life support systems that were deleted from the station, allowing the Almaz to be fitted with its own VA return capsule. The lack of a guaranteed man-rated TKS to support the planned OPS-4 flight date resulted in a last-minute revision to the station. The station would have to be capable of being supported initially by crews transported in the existing Soyuz spacecraft. Therefore the VA return capsule was deleted from OPS-4 and in its place a Soyuz docking port was built. OPS 104 would be launched with a Soyuz docking port forward and a TKS docking port aft.

But at the beginning of 1978 project funding was cut back and the first launch further delayed, meaning a crewed TKS could make the first flight after all. In December 1978 four TsKBM cosmonaut engineers were selected and began training for missions to Almaz OPS-4.

The final revised flight plan for Almaz OPS-4 was as follows:

• December 1980: Launch of Almaz-2 OPS-4
• January 1981: TKS-1: Planned first manned flight of the TKS. Crew Berezovoi, Glazkov, Makrushin. Would have docked with the Almaz OPS-4 military space station, three month duration.
• April 1981: TKS-2: Second manned TKS flight to OPS-4, four month duration. Crew Kozelsky, Artyukhin, Romanov.
• August 1981: TKS-3: Third TKS flight to OPS-4 military space station, crew Sarafanov, Preobrazhensky, Yuyukov.
• April 1982: Soyuz Almaz 4: Soyuz flight to dock with the Almaz OPS 4 space station, crew Malyshev, Laveykin.

This was the last iteration of the full-time manned Almaz program. At the end of 1978 it was decided to consolidate the Almaz and DOS projects into a single Mir space station. The existing partially-completed Almaz-2 spaceframes would be converted into man-tended automatic radar reconnaissance satellites. OPS-4 11F71 s/n 106 at that point was already in electrical tests preparatory to shipment to Baikonur. Instead it remained on the ground.

OPS-4 systems would have been similar to those of Salyut 3 and 5 (see Almaz OPS for full technical description), with the major addition of side-looking radar antennae for all weather observation of the earth’s surface and the major deletion of the Agat-1 reconnaissance camera. A range of military anti-satellite and anti-ballistic missile sensors, later flown aboard the TKS Cosmos 1686 to Salyut 7, were originally to have been ferried by TKS spacecraft to Almaz. These included an infrared telescope and the Ozon spectrometer. The TKS was also capable of refuelling the station, which required some changes to the Almaz engine system compared to the first generation models.

OPS-4 was to be equipped with the Mech-A side-looking radar. The large folded antenna array for this system was mounted on the forward cylinder of the station. The vast amounts of digital data generated by the radar would be transmitted to the ground directly or via relay satellites using the Biryuza data transmission system with the Aist antenna. The large Agat-1 optical reconnaissance system was deleted and OPS-2 was equipped only with the ASA-34 topographic camera to provide optical correlation of the ground areas imaged by the radar system. For self-defence against the American space shuttle OPS-4 was equipped with the Nudelman Shchit-2 space-to-space gun, an improved version of the weapon carried on the Almaz OPS-1 stations.

At the time of cancellation, design work had begun on OPS-5 (designated "Zvezda"), which would be equipped with docking ports for TKS vehicles at both ends of the station.

TKS Design Lives On - Almaz-T

An official resolution in February 1979 cancelled Almaz and the planned military experiments into the Mir project. Mir’s docking ports were to be reinforced to accommodate 20 tonne space station modules based on Chelomei's TKS manned ferry spacecraft in place of the lighter modules planned by Glushko. NPO Energia was made responsible for the overall space station, but subcontracted the work to Chelomei’s KB Salyut due to the press of in-house work. The subcontractor began work in the summer of 1979.

However Almaz was not completely dead. Work on an unmanned version of Almaz had already begun in 1976. The military research institute 50-TsNII-KS GUKOS conducted studies in 1976-1980 on the third generation of satellite systems., on a 10 to 15 year development cycle. Operations analysis had indicated that two automatic Almaz-T would be a necessary adjunct to Yantar and Tselina satellites. The final results of the studies were summarised in the reports 'Basic Direction of Military Space Unit Development to 1995' and 'Program for Military Space Units, 1981-1990'. Approval of these plans by the Central Committee and Soviet Ministers was issued on 2 June 1980. This covered the period through 1990 and included the Almaz-T multimode reconnaissance system. In 1981 Almaz-T was ready for flight trials, but Ustinov mothballed it. The Mech-K requirement included control of the station to within 1.5 minutes of azimuth, stabilisation of sensor to within 3 minutes of arc using gyrodynes, 10-15 g/rev, 500 kWt power.

Three automated Almaz-T were to be built from existing Almaz spaceframes (11F71-B, s/n 104 to 106; falsely designated Almaz-K or 11F667). These were given the Mech-K (Sword) code name.

Meanwhile it was still planned that two of the TKS would be flown manned to Salyut stations. In September/October 1979 three crews were formed for flights TKS-2 and TKS-3:

• TKS-2: Glazkov/Makrushin/Stepanov
• TKS-3: Sarafanov/Romanov/Preobrazhensky
• Backups: Artyukhin/Yuyukov/Berezovoi

On 20-28 November 1979 GKNII conduced state ground trials test of TKS using two crews. Many problems were uncovered requiring rework.

On April 25, 1981 TKS-1 was launched unmanned as Cosmos 1267. The VA capsule was recovered on 24 May 1981. The FGB docked with Salyut 6 on June 19 at 10:52 AM MT after 57 days of autonomous flight. It remained attached to Salyut 6 until they were both deorbited and destroyed on Salyut July 29, 1982.

Despite the success of Cosmos 1267, Ustinov was not finished with Chelomei. He cancelled the entire remaining Almaz program. A decree of 19 December 1981 halted further work on manned flights of the TKS and reoriented the flights as tests of modules for the Mir station. The TKS training group was dissolved. Work on Almaz-T was halted. Ustinov officially wanted Chelomei’s TsKBM to concentrate on ICBM development. Chelomei hid the three Almaz-T and OPS-4 space stations in a corner of his complex, labelling them as 'radioactive material'.

On 2 March 1983 TKS-2 was launched unmanned as Cosmos 1443. Aboard were 2700 kg of payload and 4000 kg of propellant. This time the VA remained attached and the TKS docked with just two days after launch. TKS-2 separated from Salyut 7 on 14 August. The VA re-entry capsule separated and the space station deorbited itself on September 19, 1983. The VA capsule continued in space for four more days, demonstrating autonomous flight, before successfully re-entering on 23 August 1983. It landed 100 km south-east of Arkalsk and returned 350 kg of material from the station.

Ustinov was old and losing his grip. Manned ‘flights’ of TKS were not completely dead. In 1982 a cosmonaut training group was formed again to fly the TKS and also to operate the military experiments aboard TKS-3 after it had docked with Salyut 7. These crews were:

• First Crew: Vasyutin, Savinykh, Volkov
• Second Crew: Aleksandrov, Saley, Viktorenko
• Backups: Solovyov, Serebrov, Moskalaneko.

Very quietly the Almaz-T project was resumed as well. It was planned that the man-tended spacecraft would be periodically visited for refuelling and repair by TKS or Soyuz and Progress spacecraft. Chelomei was finally forced to retire in October 1983. The bizarre deaths of Chelomei and Ustinov within days of each other in December 1984 opened the way for the program to be publicly resumed. A small group of cosmonauts was put into training for Soyuz flights to the man-tended Almaz-T.

Salyut 7 problems resulted in a complete breakdown of the TKS-3 plans. The first crew was bumped and instead a repair crew of Dzhanibekov and Savinykh was launched aboard Soyuz T-13 on 6 June 1985. The first ‘TKS’ crew was only completed with the launch to Salyut of Soyuz T-14 with Grechko, Vasyutin, and Volkov aboard on 17 September 1985. Grechko returned with Dzhanibekov aboard Soyuz T-13 on 26 September, clearing the aft port of Salyut for the TKS.

TKS-3 was launched unmanned as Cosmos 1686 on 27 September 1985. All VA landing systems, the ECS, seats, and manned controls had been removed and replaced with high-resolution photo apparatus and optical sensor experiments (infrared telescope and Ozon spectrometer) of the Ministry of Defence. The TKS successfully docked with Salyut 7 and remained with it for the rest of its life. For almost two months the crew of Vasyutin, Savinykh, and Volkov conducted military experiments. However Vasyutin became sick and the crew returned prematurely on 21 November 1985, leaving the station unmanned. Salyut 7 was moved to a higher orbit to await the second ‘TKS’ crew, but then control of the station was lost. There were plans to return it aboard Buran for inspection, but first flight of the spaceplane was delayed. Salyut 7 and Cosmos 1686 burned up in the atmosphere together in a fiery show over Argentina on February 7, 1991.

Almaz-T and Almaz-1V - the Last Gasp

Although Ustinov was dead, the Soviet military showed no interest in use of the Almaz-T. The Ministry of Defence was satisfied with the performance of its new electro-optical satellites. Finally the Academy of Sciences agreed to take the project over and use the first spacecraft on a science mission. A VPK decree of 12 April 1986 required Almaz 1V to be developed for international earth resources missions, including a 3 band sounder with 5 to 7 m resolution and a high-resolution scanning infrared system. The existing military Almaz-T’s would be flown as prototypes of this design.

In the second half of 1986 the first Almaz-T s/n 303 was readied for launch. General V V Favorskiy ordered it to be completed and launched with a full-up lab module in place of trials equipment. Unfortunately the Proton second stage exploded on the way to orbit on 29 November 1986.

At the beginning of 1987 it was decided not to man the Almaz-T, instead operate it in a fully automatic mode. Thus was the final Almaz cosmonaut training group disbanded.

Almaz 304 was finally launched on 25 July 1987 as Cosmos 1187. Its side-looking radar had a 20-25 m ground resolution and functioned throughout its two year service life.

Almaz 305 flew as Almaz 1 on March 31, 1991. This was the first launch of the station in post-Soviet times and the first time under its real name. :The station returned images of 10 to 15 meter resolution through 17 October 1992. The spacecraft surveyed the territory of the Soviet Union and of other countries for purposes of geology, cartography, oceanography, ecology and agriculture, and study of the ice situation at high latitudes. Almaz-1 had a 10-15 m radar ground resolution, a 10 to 30 km radiometer resolution over a 600 km swath, and an 18 month service life. Its engines completed 760,000 engine firings during that time.

With the collapse of the Soviet Union, funding for the full-up Almaz-1V commercial version dried up. Attempts to interest foreign investors in the planned second generation of Almaz-1V were unsuccessful.

Thus, with a whimper, ended a 25 year program.

Almaz-1 Technical Description

The Almaz station consisted of (from fore to aft): a 2.9 m diameter smaller diameter pressurised cylindrical section (2.9 m diameter x 3.8 m long), a conical 1.2 m long transition section, a large 4.15 m diameter x 4.1 m long cylindrical section, and a globular airlock section, with a total pressurised volume of 92.4 cu. m. The compartments of the station were, from fore to aft:

• In some variants that never flew, the VA re-entry capsule, with couches for a crew of three, and a hatch in the heat shield through which the station could be accessed
• In the variants without the VA, a short cylindrical unpressurised transition section (1.0 m long x 2.9 m diameter). Some orientation rocket engines were arranged around the periphery of this transition section. Deployable structures form extending from the top of the section formed a plume shield around each engine cluster.
• A 2.9 m diameter x 3.8 m long pressurised cylindrical section. Mounted on the outside of this section was the NR-23 self-defence gun. The interior housed:
  • Work compartment, with a volume of 6.77 cu. m., housed station control equipment
  • Living area, with a volume of 8.4 cu m
• Conical 1.2 m long transition section, housing the main station control console, including the station’s manual controls, the large POU-11 panoramic view screen for selecting targets for the other station sensors, the keyboard and printer of the BIPS encrypted teletype system, and the eyepiece of the ODU-5 sighting scope.
• The 4.15 m diameter x 4.1 m long large cylinder with the main reconnaissance apparatus had a total volume of 65.23 cu m. Most of the space was taken up by the large Agat-1 reconnaissance telescope and the Rakkord film developing system.
• The egg-shaped transit section air lock had a net volume of 7.8 cu m. The transit section had an EVA hatch on the ‘ceiling’, opposite the KSI airlock (see below). The aft hatch was equipped with a drogue apparatus of the TKS docking system. When not in use as an airlock the transit section served as the sanitation and hygiene area of the station. Around the transit section were arranged the engines of orientation and stabilisation, armatures of the thermo-regulation system, the EPU experimental pneumatic unit, and reserve air tanks for stabilisation and change of atmosphere in the station.
• The cylindrical airlock for loading and jettisoning KSI film return capsules protruded into the ‘floor’ of the section and had a total volume of 4.2 cu m. A small manipulator outside of the airlock was used to move KSI capsules from externally mounted positions on the Almaz or TKS to the airlock for film loading.
• DU engine unit. The unpressurised DU was arranged around the transit section and included two primary (3900 N thrust RD-0225) and two backup main motors for correction of orbit and manoeuvres, together with orientation engines, propellant tanks, nitrogen pressurisation tanks, and other engine system equipment. An external scientific equipment section was mounted on the outside of the DU, as were the distance measuring antennae of the Igla docking system, the Grafit command-signal antenna, and two large steer able solar panels. Within the DU were two systems umbilicals, one for use when the station was still attached to the last stage of the launch vehicle, the other for use after separation.

Weapons

• Nudelmann NR-23 23 mm (or NR-30 30 mm) cannon. This was a self-defence weapon used for defending the station against interception by American spacecraft. It was an adaptation of a standard Soviet single-barrel aircraft cannon that had been deployed since 1949. Range was from 500 to 3000 m against co-orbital targets. The NR-23 had a total mass of 39 kg. It fired a 23 mm, 200 g projectile at a muzzle velocity of 690 m/s and a rate of 950 rounds per minute. When being fired, this would have produced a recoil equivalent to 2185 N of thrust. The station was easily stabilised during firing by the two main engines of 3900 N each and the attitude control engines of 390 N each.
• Gun sight Sokol-1 (see below). The sight was used in fixed mode for gunfire operations. The entire station was moved by manual or remote control in order to track the target. Firing of the gun was controlled by the PKA Programming-Control Apparatus, which computed the lead required to destroy the target despite the 1 to 5 second transit time of the projectiles from the gun to the target.

• The Agat-1 photo apparatus by 16 SPKM was the highest-resolution device aboard. Its Kameta-11A long-focus mirror lens-objective had a 6.375 m focal length using 3 m folding optics. A multi-channel split image prism allowed the image to be fed to cameras equipped with large-format film of various types (black and white, spectrozonal, etc. ) and was also linked to Pechora television system. Detailed images would be taken after aligning the station using the OD-5 or POU-11 sighting systems.
• The OD-5 Telescope Optical System was used for wide-angle shifting magnification and was equipped with a scanning head mirror. Two magnification settings were available, one providing 2.5x – 8x magnification, the other 25x-80x. Field of view was from 32 deg to 9.5 deg (for 2.5x-8x magnification); and 3 deg to 1 deg (for 25x to 80x magnification). The camera could be pointed (in relation to the station’s long axis): +30 deg left or right; +50 deg forward to 15 deg aft. Official purposes of the camera were given as: detailed reconnaissance of areas of earth’s surface in interest of national economy and science; meteorological observations; observation of breeding grounds, forest, and steppe conditions; determination of the extent of change due to disaster (hurricane, earthquakes, man-made disaster); observation of the surface of earth.
• The POU-11 Panoramic Survey Unit allowed the sensor suite operator to observe a large area of the earth’s surface via a 340 mm diameter viewing screen. Targets of interest for the detailed sensors could be designated on the screen. The POU-11 had a magnification of 1:1 and a field of view of 60 deg.
• The Sokol-1 PKO Circular Observing Periscope. This panoramic periscope was used for observation of space and earth and for tracking space and surface targets. Magnification was from 1.5x to 6.0x with corresponding fields of view from 40 deg to 10 deg. Observation angles: horizontal to +210 deg; vertical –10 deg below to 90 deg (zenith).
• The Volga System allowed observation of the earth’s surface in the infrared range. This was the first USSR space-based infrared apparatus, with a spectral range from 3.2 to 5.2 mkm. Field of vision was 8.5 deg with a surface resolution of 100 to 120 m; Thermal resolution was 2.5 out of 20 units. Official purposes included observations in support of the national economy, hydrology, farming, forestry, and ecological monitoring.
• The Yantar-II infrared apparatus was designed for detection of explosions and other high temperature events (e.g. missile launches) in the infrared range. Two overlapping spectral ranges were available: 1.7 to 3.2 mkm and 2.5 to 3.2 mkm. Field of view was 10 deg left or right of the station, and 78 deg in azimuth.
• The ASA-34R: photographic apparatus was used for high precision topographic photography. It included the SA-34R topographic camera and the SA-33R star camera for geodesic determination of position. The camera had a 65 deg field of view and a 4 mkm positional accuracy using a 180 x 180 mm film frame format. The SA-33R cartographic apparatus was equipped with a 2:30 objective and would photograph fixed stars down to Magnitude 6.0 at the same moment the SA-34R took its image of the earth’s surface. Precision was 4 mkm using 75 x 120 mm film frame. The camera was used to map the earth and earth resources.
• The AFA-M315 / KFK-100 photo apparatus had a an objective focal length of 31/100 mm. Field of view of the imager was 100/55 deg. Resolution (lines/mm) 40/20, 50/30. Film formats 70 x 80 mm, 70 x 80 mm.
• The AI-3R 11V028 star tracker and R-1R 11V027 sextant by Arsenal KB and TsKB Geofizika were used to orient the station for photography or combat operations. They operated in 10 deg to 30 deg angles from zenith; had a magnification of 2x to 10x; could accommodate a range of angle motion of 60 grads/deg with a maximum error of 10-15 grad/sec.
• The DSI sensor of velocity of observation determined the slewing angle for use with the Agat-1 and other cameras in order to compensate image blurring.
• The Rakkord film developing system developed film from the camera systems and allowed the cosmonauts to make both contact sheets and full-size prints. The system was hermetically sealed to prevent fumes from entering the cabin atmosphere.
• The SPMK K-3 motion picture film camera was used for on-board and exterior hand-held photography
• The Zenit-YeM still camera was used for on-board and exterior hand-held photography
• The KSI capsules were used for return of developed film from the station to the earth. The capsules were placed in a cylindrical airlock with a total volume of 4.2 cu m. A small manipulator outside of the airlock was used to move additional KSI capsules from externally mounted positions on the Almaz or TKS to the airlock for film loading. The capsule was 1.35 m long and 0.85 m in diameter and came in two parts: a re-entry heat shield, and an internal payload container. Payloads of 90 cc volume and 120 kg could be accommodated. At capsule ejection the Almaz station was oriented with its nose in the direction of motion pitched down 30 deg from horizontal. As a result the capsule was pneumatically ejected at a 60 deg angle towards the earth and against the direction of motion of the station. A timer spun the capsule up, fired a solid rocket to brake the capsule for return to the earth, and then spun the capsule down. The 0.51 m long retrorocket assembly was jettisoned and the capsule entered the earth’s atmosphere. Following re-entry, it deployed a small drogue chute was deployed, and the re-entry shell separated from the payload container. The main chute followed, bringing the film to the earth. A radio beacon announced the location of the container to recovery forces
• The Pechora-1 television system was used to transmit images from the camera systems, especially the Agat-1, to the ground
• Side-looking radar was planned for Almaz phase 1 but evidently was not carried. Some white fairings in a photo of Salyut 3 in the assembly shop have been identified by some as SLAR installations, but it seems that the system was not actually available until the cancelled Almaz phase 2 missions.

• The PKA Programming-Control Apparatus was used to orient the station for special operations (e.g. gun firing), collection of photo-intelligence, orbital correction, docking with the 7K-T ferry, ejection of KSI film return canisters, support of science and earth resources experiments, and stabilisation of the station in the most economic mode during all flight phases
• The Argon 11M66 digital computer was supposed to make Almaz the first digitally-controlled Soviet spacecraft. Incredibly this item did not complete development for 15 years and was first installed in the Mir station after it was launched in 1988. The analogue PKA and BVK systems were used in its place during the phase 1 Almaz flights.
• IKV 76K6, solar sensors 190K and 191K were the primary sensors that fed the control system of station. They allowed determination of the local vertical and the orientation of the station in space. This supported normal automatic station orientation.
• The RUSBA Autonomous System of Manual Control was the backup orientation system. It was the classic Vostok ‘Vzor’ system consisting of the OSK-2R or OSK-3R optical orientation periscope. Sighting through screen, the cosmonaut could orient station manually for manoeuvres. Two channels were visible in the periscope: a central image of the sunlit earth’s surface, for orienting the station along the direction of motion by observing the flow of the landscape below; and a peripheral channel, used to orient the station to the local horizontal
• The EMSS 11M019 Electromechanical Stabilisation System was built by VNIIEM (Chief Designer Iosifiyan). EMSS, could move the station within +4 deg angles (vs. +15 deg required in the TTZ specification document), with an angular error of +0.003 to –0.005 seconds (vs. +0,015 sec required by the TTZ).
• The SUD was the Guidance System for the 2 x 400 kgf RD-0225 Orbital Correction Engines
• The SS ZhRD was the chemical rocket stabilisation system. ZhRD was used to manoeuvre the spacecraft to within +12 deg angles. It consisted of a number of 40 kgf RDMT-400 and 1.2 kgf RDMT-12 engines arranged in the DU engine section and the forward cylinder of the station.

• The Aurora radio system provided UHF and HF voice communications
• The Grafit radio command link provided timing for station systems and measured orbital parameters
• The Kashtan 11R91 provided the time synchronisation signal for station systems
• The BIPS On-board Information Distribution System was an encrypted teletype terminal that provided cosmonauts with updates and on-board instructions and for their daily work program.

• The thermo regulation system kept the living area between 17 and 25 deg C, and the equipment bays between 15 and 34 deg C. Humidity was kept between 37 and 60% at 20 deg C.
• The life support system provided a cabin atmosphere of between 778 and 864 mm, with the oxygen partial pressure between 170 and 222 mm, and carbon dioxide between 0 and 8 mm. It was capable of supporting full depressurisation and repressurisation of the entire station, as was demonstrated by Gorbatko and Glazkov.
• The Priboy-101 water regeneration system was built by NIIKhMMASH
• The Automatic Electrical System could be operated by ground control or from the Soyuz 7K-T
• The BVK on-board computer system would receive command sequences from KIK tracking stations, and process these commands into corresponding detailed programs for controlling the station’s equipment. It was used for special operations (unmanned test of the gun system) and return of television imagery to earth.
• The Albatros system provided television monitoring of interior and exterior of station
• The Igla-PR automated docking system was a modification of that developed for the Soyuz.
• The BR-9A on-board telemetry system encoded information from sensors on the ship’s systems for transmission to earth.
• The TSK was a system of 15 small portholes to allow the cosmonauts to inspect external and hermetically sealed areas of the station.

Many thanks to the kind assistance of Olaf Przybilski, Dietrich Haeseler, and Dmitry Pieson in the preparation of this article.

Principle sources:

• Przybilski, Olaf, Almaz-Proton: Das supergeheime Aufklaerungssystem der UdSSR, Schriftenreihe der Deutschen Raumfahrtausstellung eV, TU Dresden, 2. Auflage, 1999.
• Yeteyev, Ivan, Operezhaya vremya, Ocherki, Moscow, 1999.

Additional Sources:

• Afanasyev, I B, Neizvestnie korabli, Kosmonavtika, Astronomiya, Znanie, 12-91.
• Chugunova, Nina, Ogonyok, "Kosmonavti Chelomeya", January 1993, No. 4-5, page 24.
• Haeseler, Dietrich, Spaceflight, "Original Almaz Space Station", 1994, Volume 35, page 342.
• Kidger, Neville, Spaceflight, "Almaz - A Diamond Out of Darkness", 1994, Volume 36, page 86.
• Melnik, T G, Voenno-Kosmicheskiy Siliy, Nauka, Moscow, 1997.
• Pauw, H, Spaceflight, "New Facts About Soviet Space Stations", 1994, Volume 36, page 89.