This system was designed to provide services to both military and civilian users. On 5 April 1972 the YeSSS was defined as the Molniya-2 and Molniya-3 satellites in elliptical orbit and Raduga (Statsionar) in geosynchronous orbit. The complete first generation communications system was accepted into military service in December 1979. Over the next five years, though 1985, 35 Molniya and 17 Raduga satellites were launched to keep the system operational.

Russian geosynchronous spacecraft differed from Western equivalents in their greater mass (2.0-2.5 metric tons), their lesser communications capacity, and, their lack north-south station-keeping ability. The latter resulted in a continual variation of orbital inclinations (typically between 0 to 5 degrees) of Russian geosynchronous satellites during their operational lifetimes. To minimise this effect new satellites were launched with initial geosynchronous orbital inclinations of 1-2 degrees under strict conditions which took advantage of solar-lunar perturbations to reduce the inclination to zero over a period of one to two years before it increased. East-West station-keeping was accomplished with liquid propellant thrusters.

All geosynchronous satellites were launched from Baikonur by the Proton booster. With rare exceptions the spacecraft were inserted into geosynchronous near 90 degrees East and allowed to drift east or west to their intended stations.

• Molniya: Flight trials of the Molniya-2 were conducted in 1971-1974. Operational flights came in 1974-1977. Molniya-2, like Molniya-1, consisted of four pairs of spacecraft with orbits at ninety degrees to one another. Development of Molniya-3, initially designated Molniya-2M, began in 1972. Flight trials began in November 1974. The Molniya-3 was used to create the 'Orbita' television system for northern regions, with groups of four satellites.

• Raduga: Development of Soviet geosynchronous satellites began at the end of the 1960's. In July 1974 a Proton DM boosted a Molniya-1 into geosynchronous orbit. This was a test for the specialised military Raduga satellites that were to be stationed at 35 degrees and 85 degrees East. Construction of the first Raduga was completed in 1975. A single orbital group of two such satellites could handle all of the military communications of the Soviet eastern regions. Internationally designated Statsionar-1, Raduga represented the first use of the new universal spacecraft bus KAUR-3.

• Ekran: In the first half of the 1970's the development of the Ekran (Statsionar T) civilian geosynchronous system was completed for central television broadcast to Siberia and the Far North. The first Ekran was launched on 26 October 1976. The first flights used experimental satellites, but they already allowed 18 to 20 million additional Soviet citizens to see the Central Television program. Problems with the Proton booster resulted in delays in putting the system into operation.

• Survivable communications system: The Strela-1M and Strela-2M store-dump satellite constellation continued in use for tactical communications with improvements.

• Resurs-O: A decree of December 1971 ordered development of the Meteor-Priroda system for remote sensing. This adaptation of the Meteor allowed low resolution multispectral imaging. First launch was on 9 July 74. The Resurs-OE and Resurs-O1 improved versions continued to provide this service through the end of the century.

• Resurs-F: A decree of 21 December 1972 started work on a supplemental high resolution film-return earth resources system. The Zenit-4MKT / Fram spacecraft took multi-spectral photographs on black and white and spectro-zonal film.

• Adaptations of the recoverable Zenit satellite were again used for new purposes. The Bion was developed for biological studies and the Foton for materials science research.

By 1976 Nixon had been ousted from power and the Carter administrations renewed work on ASAT's. This resulted in a new series of trial flights of an improved IS-A interceptor and target (DS-P1-M) through 1978. The last flight tests were conducted in 1982. The Soviet Union unilaterally abandoned anti-satellite operations in 1983. The improved IS-MU version of the system was kept in untested reserve after that date.

The TKS manned ferry spacecraft were tested in unmanned flights and the TKS VA re-entry capsule underwent extensive tests. After cancellation of the Almaz-2 program, surplus TKS resupply craft were flown to dockings with Salyut 6 and 7. Although the TKS had significantly better characteristics than the existing Soyuz spacecraft, it was not put into operation. However this design formed the basis for modules of the Mir and International Space Stations.

• Manned Lunar Programme: In July 1969 the Americans beat the Soviet Union to the moon, but the Soviet N1-L3 project continued. The revised plan envisioned establishment of a lunar base in the late 1970's, after the Americans had completed their Apollo program. This would use dual-launches of new L3M-1970 / L3M-1972 spacecraft by an improved N1F booster. Unfortunately the third and fourth N1 launches were failures. The first N1F was being prepared for launch when the entire program was cancelled in 1974. Glushko replaced Mishin as head of the Korolev bureau.

• Manned Mars Expedition: Flushed with their victory in the moon race, NASA advanced serious plans in 1969 for a manned Mars landing program. The Soviet leadership directed study of a Russian equivalent - Aelita. Korolev's bureau dusted off their earlier studies of the 1960's and came up with the MEK before deciding not to submit a draft proposal. Chelomei completed design of his UR-700M / MK-700. But the Nixon administration quickly axed NASA's ambitious plans and a study of the matter by an expert commission in 1973 decided that the Soviet Union did not have the money or technology for such a project.

• Civilian Space Station: The Korolev bureau planned an ambitious MKBS orbital base lofted by the N1 booster. However continued failures of the N1 put these plans on indefinite hold. After America's landing on the moon and the explosion of the second N1, the engineering staff at Korolev's bureau found itself with no immediate work at hand. There would be a long delay for redesign of the N1, and they had spun off all of their unmanned spacecraft to other design bureaux.

  The next round of the space race would be the first manned space station. While the USAF had cancelled their MOL Manned Orbiting Laboratory, NASA's Skylab was scheduled for launch by 1972. Like-minded engineers conspired behind the backs of Chief Designers Chelomei and Mishin. Through Communist Party channels they proposed to take the Almaz OPS hulls already built by Chelomei, outfit them with flight-qualified Soyuz systems, and launch the resulting spacecraft before Skylab. The Soviet leadership, fed up with the internecine quarrelling that contributed to the loss of the moon race, agreed. The Salyut-1 DOS (long duration orbital station) design was created.

  The first launch, Salyut 1 of 1971, beat Skylab into orbit but the crew perished when their Soyuz spacecraft depressurised during the return to earth. Launch and in-orbit failures in 1972 and 1973 were finally followed by the completely successful Salyut 4 of 1975-1976. The cancellation of the N1 in 1974 left Salyut as the only Soviet civilian manned space program.

  The Korolev bureau borrowed the two docking port configuration of Chelomei's Almaz-2 and flew Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 in 1977 and 1982. This allowed near-continuous occupation of the stations through crew rotation. The opportunity was taken to fly 'guest cosmonauts' from friendly countries on short visits to the stations. Salyut 7 was able to conduct significant military experiments thanks to the greatly increased volume and payload of the TKS modules diverted from the Almaz programme.

  To support operation of these stations the basic Soyuz design was modified by addition of a docking tunnel. The resulting Soyuz 7KT-OK was used with the Salyut 1 DOS space station. Following the disastrous Soyuz 11 mission, it was again reworked to the simplified Soyuz 7K-T design, which finally provided a reliable ferry craft to Salyuts-4, -6, and -7. A further modification was the Progress, an unmanned logistics vehicle that replaced the crew re-entry vehicle with propellant tanks for resupply of Salyut space stations. These Soyuz 7K-OK derivatives flew until succeeded by Soyuz T in 1981 and Progress M in 1989. These designs were derived from the still-born Soyuz 7K-S, a military version of Soyuz which began development in 1968. From 17 July 1984 Soyuz could be launched with 200 kg additional mass thanks to use of Tsiklin propellant in the Soyuz-U2 booster. Some solo Soyuz missions were conducted apart from the Salyut program. Soyuz 20 carried a biological payload, and Soyuz 22 / Soyuz 7K-MF6 flew a multi-spectral camera.

• Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) - Following the moon race and in the atmosphere of the Nixon-Brezhnev détente, meetings began in 1969 to develop a universal docking system for space rescue. A working group was set up in October 1970 and in May 1972 a US/USSR Agreement was signed for a joint manned space mission to take place in 1975. The Soviets developed the modified Soyuz 7K-TM design for the mission. Soyuz 19 (ASTP) and Apollo (ASTP) successfully docked in orbit in July 1975. The worsening cold war prevented further joint missions. The information the Russians acquired during this project helped them reinvent their space technology and program management techniques for the third generation of space systems.

Launch Vehicles

The Ministry of Defence did manage to retire some old launch vehicles. 1974 saw the last launch from KRK Raduga using the Kosmos 63S1M booster. On 29 June 1976 the last Voskhod 11A57 booster was launched. As a result, in 1977 121 launches were made using only six types of launch vehicles and 16 types of spacecraft. Launch facilities at Kapustin Yar were limited to LC-5 and LC-53.

• Light medium launch vehicle: The Kosmos 11K65M continued in service for all lighter satellites. The Kosmos 11K63 was retired.

• Medium launch vehicle: The two-stage Tsyklon-2 continued in service for the US and IS payloads (which were equipped with rocket engines for orbital insertion). Work on the Tsyklon-3 began in the early 1970's. The specification was to deliver 4 tonnes into low earth orbit with high accuracy, requiring minimum adjustment of the operational orbit by the payload. To achieve this a new third stage was developed. A new launch complex for the Tsyklon-3 began construction at the beginning of the 1970's at Plesetsk. The first pad was put into operation in 1977 and the second in 1979.

• Heavy launch vehicle: The UR-500K (Proton 8K82K) itself underwent flight trials from March 1978 to February 1970, a total of 20 flights. The original Block D configuration (Proton 8K82K / 11S824) was used until 1976, at which time it was replaced by a modernised version (Proton 8K82K / 11S86) equipped with N2O4/UDMH verniers for precise placement of payloads in geosynchronous orbit. This was accepted into military service in 1978 with the first Raduga launch. Project work began in 1970, with construction starting in 1972, on Launch Complex LC-200 for the Proton and a new MIK-KA for spacecraft integration. The first pad was completed in 1977, the second in 1978, and the MIK-KA was first used in 1981. These facilities supported launch of the military's second generation systems. The new MIK-KA had two areas for preparation of second generation navigation satellites, one area for preparation of transponder satellites, and five areas for second and third generation communications and electro-optical reconnaissance satellites.

• R-7: The Soyuz 11A511U was a standardised, modernised version of the R-7 launch vehicle with higher performance first and second stage engines. Improvements were made to the launch complexes, including unified test-launch ground support equipment. This was first used on the Apollo-Soyuz launches in the mid-1970's. Military applications included Zenit and Yantar. A modernised Vostok 8A92M launcher remained in service for sun-synchronous orbit payloads. First use was the Meteor launch on 29 June 1977.

Continued in Second Generation Soviet Space Systems.

Preceding chapter: First Generation Soviet Space Systems.