Molniya LV Media Gallery

Four stage derivative of the R-7 ICBM developed on a crash-program basis in 1960 for Soviet lunar and planetary deep space probe missions. The third stage found later use in the Voskhod and Soyuz launchers. By the 1970's mature versions of the launch vehicle were used almost entirely for launch of Molniya communications satellites and Oko missile early warning spacecraft into elliptical, 12-hour earth orbits.

On 15 January 1960 Korolev signed the order for development of a four stage rocket based on the R-7. The draft project was completed on 10 May 1960. The original design was intended for launch of unmanned probes toward Mars, but it had universal uses.

The first two stages - the four strap-ons of the first stage and the second core stage - were based on the R-7 ICBM, but reinforced for the heavier upper stages.

On aerodynamic grounds the new third stage had to follow closely the diameter of the Vostok third stage. Therefore it could only be increased from the Vostok's 2.58 m to 2.66 m diameter. The new third stage used engines developed for the R-9 ICBM. Although first developed for the Monlniya four-stage booster, it later would be used with modifications in the three-stage Soyuz launch vehicle.

The fourth stage would have to restart in weightless conditions in an earth parking orbit, presenting a number of problems. It needed to be equipped with an orientation and stabilization system (SOIS) and a jettisonable engine section (BOZ). The BOZ had to start in weightlessness provide a low thrust to settle the propellants in the main stage so that the main engine could ignite. The stage was based on the existing Vostok third stage, with two toroidal tanks of 600 mm cross section, and a single S1-5400 Lox/kerosene engine.

Manufacturer: Korolev. Launches: 26. Failures: 14. Success Rate: 46.15%. First Launch Date: 1960-01-20. Last Launch Date: 1965-12-03. Launch data is: complete. Payload: 900 kg (1,980 lb). to a: interplanetary trajectory. Associated Spacecraft: Luna E-6, Mars 1M, Mars 2MV-1, Mars 2MV-2, Mars 2MV-3, Mars 2MV-4, Mars 3MV-4A, Molniya-1, Molniya-1T, Venera 1VA, Venera 3MV-1A. Liftoff Thrust: 3,999.930 kN (899,220 lbf). Total Mass: 303,500 kg (669,100 lb). Core Diameter: 2.99 m (9.80 ft). Total Length: 40.00 m (131.00 ft). Flyaway Unit Cost $: 39.000 million. in: 1985 unit dollars.

Basis Molniya vehicle.

Payload: 900 kg (1,980 lb). to a: interplanetary trajectory. Liftoff Thrust: 3,999.930 kN (899,220 lbf). Total Mass: 303,500 kg (669,100 lb). Core Diameter: 2.99 m (9.80 ft). Total Length: 40.00 m (131.00 ft).

Molniya adaptation for launch of E-6 lunar probes.

Apogee: 400,000 km (240,000 mi). Liftoff Thrust: 4,054.000 kN (911,375 lbf). Total Mass: 306,200 kg (675,000 lb). Core Diameter: 2.95 m (9.67 ft). Total Length: 44.40 m (145.60 ft).

• Stage Number: 0. 4 x Stage: Molniya 8K78-0. Gross Mass: 43,400 kg (95,600 lb). Empty Mass: 3,800 kg (8,300 lb). Thrust (vac): 995.300 kN (223,752 lbf). Isp: 314 sec. Burn time: 119 sec. Isp(sl): 257 sec. Diameter: 2.68 m (8.79 ft). Span: 2.68 m (8.79 ft). Length: 19.00 m (62.00 ft). Propellants: Lox/Kerosene. No Engines: 1. Engine: RD-107-8D74K.

• Stage Number: 1. 1 x Stage: Molniya 8K78-1. Gross Mass: 100,500 kg (221,500 lb). Empty Mass: 6,800 kg (14,900 lb). Thrust (vac): 941.000 kN (211,545 lbf). Isp: 315 sec. Burn time: 301 sec. Isp(sl): 248 sec. Diameter: 2.99 m (9.80 ft). Span: 2.60 m (8.50 ft). Length: 28.00 m (91.00 ft). Propellants: Lox/Kerosene. No Engines: 1. Engine: RD-108-8D75K.

• Stage Number: 2. 1 x Stage: Molniya 8K78-2. Gross Mass: 24,300 kg (53,500 lb). Empty Mass: 2,000 kg (4,400 lb). Thrust (vac): 294.000 kN (66,093 lbf). Isp: 330 sec. Burn time: 200 sec. Isp(sl): 0 sec. Diameter: 2.56 m (8.39 ft). Span: 2.56 m (8.39 ft). Length: 2.84 m (9.31 ft). Propellants: Lox/Kerosene. No Engines: 1. Engine: RD-0108.

• Stage Number: 3. 1 x Stage: Molniya 8K78-3. Gross Mass: 5,100 kg (11,200 lb). Empty Mass: 1,080 kg (2,380 lb). Thrust (vac): 65.410 kN (14,705 lbf). Isp: 340 sec. Burn time: 192 sec. Isp(sl): 0 sec. Diameter: 2.56 m (8.39 ft). Span: 2.56 m (8.39 ft). Length: 2.84 m (9.31 ft). Propellants: Lox/Kerosene. No Engines: 1. Engine: S1.5400.

1960 January 15 - Launch Vehicle: Molniya 8K78.

• Molniya 8K78 design begins Nation: USSR. Korolev signed the order for development of a four stage rocket based on the R-7.

• R-7A I-2/Dummy L Test mission Nation: USSR. Agency: RVSN. Apogee: 200 km (120 mi). Suborbital aerodynamic test flight with R-7A 8K74 lower stages, dummy upper stages. References: 98,.

• R-7A I-4/Dummy L Test mission Nation: USSR. Agency: RVSN. Apogee: 200 km (120 mi). Suborbital aerodynamic test flight with R-7A 8K74 lower stages, dummy upper stages.

• Molniya 8K78 draft project completed Nation: USSR. The original design was intended for launch of unmanned probes toward Mars, but it had universal uses.

• Molniya launch vehicle and initial Vostok flights approved. Nation: USSR. Spacecraft: Vostok. Central Committee and Council of Soviet Ministers Decree 587-238 'On the Realisation of the Plan to Master Cosmic Space in 1960 and the First Half of 1961 -creation of a four-stage launcher for interplanetary missions and schedule for the Korabl-Sputniks' References: 474.

• Mars probe 1M s/n 1 failure. Nation: USSR. Program: Mars. Payload: 1M s/n 1. Mass: 640 kg (1,410 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Mars. Spacecraft: Mars 1M. Agency: RVSN. COSPAR: F601010A. Decay Date: 1960-10-10. This was the Soviet Union's first attempt at a planetary probe. Mars probe intended to photograph Mars on a flyby trajectory. The possible cause lay in resonance vibrations of upper stages during Stage 2 burning, which led to break of contact in the command potentiometer of the gyrohorizon. As a result a pitch control malfunctioned and the launcher began to veer off the desired ascent profile. On exceeding 7 degrees of veering in pitch, the control system failed. The upper stage with the payload reached an altitude of 120 km before burning up on re-entry into the atmosphere above East Siberia.References: 5, 64, 65, 118, 296.

• Mars probe 1M s/n 2 failure. Nation: USSR. Program: Mars. Payload: 1M s/n 2. Class: Planetary. Type: Mars. Spacecraft: Mars 1M. Agency: RVSN. COSPAR: F601014A. Decay Date: 1960-10-14. Mars probe intended to photograph Mars on a flyby trajectory. This was the Soviet Union's second attempt at a planetary probe. The upper stages and payload broke up on re-entry into the atmosphere. References: 5, 64, 65, 118, 296.

• Venera preparations Nation: USSR. Spacecraft: Mars 2MV-2. The VVS contingent arrives at Tyuratam at 23:45 aboard an Il-14 for the Venera launch. Chertok is in charge of launch preparations. Due to various radio system problems, there can be no launch until 26 January. The death of Nedelin and the others still hangs over the cosmodrome.References: 376.

• Venera preparations Nation: USSR. Spacecraft: Mars 2MV-2, Vostok. Korolev plans three launches between 20 January and 14 February, but clearly his teams are not ready to accomplish this. There was insufficient testing of the Object V Venera spacecraft before it was shipped from OKB-1 to the cosmodrome. OKB-1 is trying to finish Object V on site, at the same time preparing the next Vostok 3KA and an R-9 ICBM for launch. Object V is not ready, the ability of its systems to function at long ranges and periods of time on the voyage to Venus are suspect. In Kamanin's opinion, it is diverting the crews from the higher priority manned and military projects.References: 376.

• Venera delays Nation: USSR. Spacecraft: Mars 2MV-2. The Object V launch is delayed to 1 February. Yangel has also had to postpone the next R-16 launch attempt to 26-30 January. References: 376.

• Back at Tyuratam Nation: USSR. Spacecraft: Mars 2MV-2. Kamanin flies to the cosmodrome with Korolev, Keldysh, Moskalenko, General Semenov, and others. Yangel's R-16 ICBM is not ready for launch yet due to continuing problems with the radio systems. The Venera is set for a 2 February launch attempt. References: 376.

• Venera rolled out to pad Nation: USSR. Spacecraft: Mars 2MV-2. The booster is 5 to 7 m taller than the Vostok. One gyroscope has to be replaced on the pad. Fuelling begins at 23:30. At 02:00 the launch is scrubbed due to continuing gyro problems. Next attempt is set for 4 February. References: 376.

• R-16 failure analysis Nation: USSR. The events began with an access hatch on the second stage coming off at lift-off - it had been secured with two bolts rather than the eight required. Aerodynamic forces produced a harmonic vibration of the metal structure, measured in millimetres, but enough to disrupt the gyroscopes, which in turn provided false signals to the guidance and control system, which in turn resulted in no igntion signal going to the second stage. Korolev has his Venera booster back on the pad for the 4 February launch. They are much better prepared now than four or five days ago.References: 376.

• Sputnik 7 Nation: USSR. Program: Venera. Payload: 2MV-2 s/n 1. Mass: 6,483 kg (14,292 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Venus. Spacecraft: Venera 1VA. Agency: RVSN. Perigee: 212 km (131 mi). Apogee: 318 km (197 mi). Inclination: 64.90 deg. Period: 89.80 min. COSPAR: 1961-Beta-1. USAF Sat Cat: 71. Decay Date: 1961-02-26. The escape stage entered parking orbit but the main engine cut off just 0.8 s after ignition due to cavitation in the oxidiser pump and pump failure.. The payload attached together with escape stage remained in Earth orbit.

  The booster launched into a beautiful clear sky, and it could be followed by the naked eye for four minutes after launch. The third stage reached earth parking orbit, but the fourth stage didn't ignite. It was at first believed a radio antenna did not deploy from the interior of the stage, and it did not receive the ignition commands. Therefore the Soviet Union has successfully orbited a record eight-tonne 'Big Zero' into orbit. The State Commission meets two hours after the launch, and argues whether to make the launch public or not, and how to announce it. Glushko proposes the following language for a public announcement: 'with the objective of developing larger spacecraft, a payload was successfully orbited which provided on the first revolution the necessary telemetry'. Korolev and the others want to minimize any statement, to prevent speculation that it was a reconnaissance satellite or a failed manned launch. Kamanin's conclusion - the rocket didn't reach Venus, but it did demonstrated a new rocket that could deliver an 8 tonne thermonuclear warhead anywhere on the planet. The commission heads back to Moscow.References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64, 65, 376.

• Venera 1 Nation: USSR. Program: Venera. Payload: 1VA s/n 2, Venera 1 (Sputnik 8, AMS). Mass: 644 kg (1,419 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Venus. Spacecraft: Venera 1VA. Agency: RVSN. COSPAR: 1961-Gamma-1. USAF Sat Cat: 80. Venera 1 was the first spacecraft to fly by Venus. The 6424 kg assembly was launched first into a 229 x 282 km parking orbit, then boosted toward Venus by the restartable Molniya upper stage. On 19 February, 7 days after launch, at a distance of about two million km from Earth, contact with the spacecraft was lost. On May 19 and 20, 1961, Venera 1 passed within 100,000 km of Venus and entered a heliocentric orbit. This failure resulted in only the following objectives being met: checking of methods of setting space objects on an interplanetary course; checking of extra-long-range communications with and control of the space station; more accurate calculation of the dimension of the solar system; a number of physical investigations in space.Additional Details: Venera 1(64). References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64, 296, 376.

• Sputnik 19 Nation: USSR. Program: Venera, Vostok. Payload: 2MV-1 s/n 1. Mass: 890 kg (1,960 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Venus. Spacecraft: Mars 2MV-1. Agency: RVSN. Perigee: 173 km (107 mi). Apogee: 252 km (156 mi). Inclination: 64.90 deg. Period: 88.70 min. COSPAR: 1962-A-Pi-1. USAF Sat Cat: 371. Decay Date: 1962-08-28. Attempt to launch a probe towards Mars. The launch went well, but the fourth stage motor burnt for only 45s of the planned 240s. The stage remained in Earth orbit. However Kamanin notes that it was good that the launch of the basic vehicle was a success - it gave the visiting female cosmonauts confidence in the rocket they will have to ride.References: 2, 5, 6, 64, 65.

• Sputnik 20 Nation: USSR. Program: Venera. Payload: 2MV-1 s/n 2. Mass: 6,500 kg (14,300 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Venus. Spacecraft: Mars 2MV-1. Agency: RVSN. Perigee: 185 km (114 mi). Apogee: 246 km (152 mi). Inclination: 64.70 deg. Period: 88.80 min. COSPAR: 1962-A-Tau-1. USAF Sat Cat: 381. Decay Date: 1962-09-06. References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64, 65.

• Sputnik 21 Nation: USSR. Program: Venera. Payload: 2MV-2 s/n 1. Mass: 6,500 kg (14,300 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Venus. Spacecraft: Mars 2MV-2. Agency: RVSN. Perigee: 179 km (111 mi). Apogee: 218 km (135 mi). Inclination: 64.90 deg. Period: 88.40 min. COSPAR: 1962-A-Phi-1. USAF Sat Cat: 389. Decay Date: 1962-09-14. The escape stage entered parking orbit but the main engine cut off just 0.8 s after ignition due to cavitation in the oxidiser pump and pump failure. References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64, 65.

• Sputnik 22 Nation: USSR. Program: Mars. Payload: 2MV-4 s/n 3. Mass: 6,500 kg (14,300 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Mars. Spacecraft: Mars 2MV-4. Agency: RVSN. Perigee: 202 km (125 mi). Apogee: 260 km (160 mi). Inclination: 65.10 deg. Period: 89.10 min. COSPAR: 1962-B-Iota-1. USAF Sat Cat: 443. Decay Date: 1962-10-29. Mars probe intended to photograph Mars on a flyby trajectory. The spacecraft broke into many pieces, some of which apparently remained in Earth orbit for a few days. This occurred during the Cuban missile crisis and was picked up by U.S. military radar installations, who originally feared it might by the start of a Soviet nuclear attack.References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64, 65, 118, 296.

• Mars 1 Nation: USSR. Program: Mars. Payload: 2MV-4 s/n 4 / Sputnik 23. Mass: 894 kg (1,970 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Mars. Spacecraft: Mars 2MV-4. Agency: RVSN. COSPAR: 1962-B-Nu-3. USAF Sat Cat: 450. Mars probe intended to photograph Mars on a flyby trajectory. Launched from Sputnik 23 in a 157 x 238 km, 65 degree parking orbit. Sixty-one radio transmissions were held in which a large amount of data was collected. On March 21, 1963, when the spacecraft was at a distance of 106 million km communications ceased, possibly due to a malfunction in the spacecraft orientation system. Mars 1 closest approach to Mars occurred on June 19, 1963 at a distance of approximately 193,000 km, after which the spacecraft entered a heliocentric orbit. Announced mission: Prolonged exploration of outer space during flight to the planet Mars; establishment of inter-planetary radio communications; photgraphing of the planet Mars and subsquent radio-transmission to Earth of the photographs of the surface of Mars thus obtained.References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 118, 296.

• Sputnik 24 Nation: USSR. Program: Mars. Payload: 2MV-3 s/n 1. Mass: 890 kg (1,960 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Venus. Spacecraft: Mars 2MV-3. Agency: RVSN. Perigee: 170 km (100 mi). Apogee: 170 km (100 mi). Inclination: 64.80 deg. Period: 87.90 min. COSPAR: 1962-B-Xi-1. USAF Sat Cat: 451. Decay Date: 1962-11-05. Mars probe intended to make a soft landing on Mars. Although the escape stage and payload reached orbit, the strong third stage vibrations shook a fuse loose from its mount in the main nozzle of the escape stage Block L's engine. The engine could not be ignited and remained in Earth orbit. It decayed about two months after insertion.References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64, 65, 118, 296.

• Sputnik 25 Nation: USSR. Program: Luna. Payload: E-6 s/n 1. Class: Planetary. Type: Lunar. Spacecraft: Luna E-6. Agency: NII-88. Perigee: 165 km (102 mi). Apogee: 189 km (117 mi). Inclination: 64.60 deg. Period: 88.00 min. COSPAR: 1963-001B. USAF Sat Cat: 522. Decay Date: 1963-01-05. References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64, 65.

• E-6 s/n 2 failure. Nation: USSR. Program: Luna. Payload: E-6 s/n 2. Class: Planetary. Type: Lunar. Spacecraft: Luna E-6. Agency: RVSN. COSPAR: F630203A. Decay Date: 1963-02-03. Apparent causes were instabilities in the torque sensor circuit and the pitch-free floating gyro device. The upper stages and payload broke up on re-entry into the atmosphere over the Pacific. References: 5, 64, 65.

• Luna 4 Nation: USSR. Program: Luna. Payload: E-6 s/n 3. Mass: 1,422 kg (3,134 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Lunar. Spacecraft: Luna E-6. Agency: RVSN. Perigee: 167 km (103 mi). Apogee: 182 km (113 mi). Inclination: 64.70 deg. Period: 87.98 min. COSPAR: 1963-008A. USAF Sat Cat: 563. Decay Date: 1963-04-03. Luna 4 was the second attempted Soviet unmanned lunar soft lander probe. The spacecraft, rather than being sent on a straight trajectory toward the Moon, was placed first in an earth parking orbit. The rocket stage then reignited and put the spaccecraft on a translunar trajectory. Failure of Luna 4 to make a required midcourse correction resulted in it missing the Moon by 8336.2 km on April 6, at 4:26 a.m. Moscow time. It thereafter entered a barycentric Earth orbit. The Soviet news agency, Tass, reported that data had been received from the spacecraft throughout its flight and that radio communication would continue for a few more days.References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 16, 64, 296.

• Cosmos 21 Nation: USSR. Program: Mars. Payload: 3MV-1A s/n 1. Mass: 890 kg (1,960 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Venus. Spacecraft: Venera 3MV-1A. Agency: NII-88. Perigee: 192 km (119 mi). Apogee: 231 km (143 mi). Inclination: 64.80 deg. Period: 88.70 min. COSPAR: 1963-044A. USAF Sat Cat: 687. Decay Date: 1963-11-14. The stage with payload remained in Earth orbit as Cosmos-51 and burnt up on re-entry. References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64, 65.

• Molniya-1 s/n 2 Failure Nation: USSR. Program: Molniya. Payload: Molniya-1 s/n 2. Mass: 1,600 kg (3,500 lb). Class: Communications. Spacecraft: Molniya-1. Agency: RVSN. COSPAR: F640604A. Unsuccessful first attempt to launch Molniya communications satellite. References: 64, 65.

• Cosmos 41 Nation: USSR. Program: Molniya. Payload: Molniya-1. Mass: 1,500 kg (3,300 lb). Class: Communications. Spacecraft: Molniya-1. Agency: NII-88. Perigee: 1,023 km (635 mi). Apogee: 39,169 km (24,338 mi). Inclination: 68.40 deg. Period: 714.50 min. COSPAR: 1964-049D. USAF Sat Cat: 869. Successful launch of first Soviet communications satellite. This is the second Molniya launch attempt. (the first was a launch failure). The failure of the antennae to deploy means the spacecraft can only be tested in a limited manner and cannot be used for the planned relay of television.References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64, 376.

• Zond 2 Nation: USSR. Program: Mars. Payload: 3MV-4A s/n 2. Mass: 890 kg (1,960 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Mars. Spacecraft: Mars 3MV-4A. Agency: NII-88. COSPAR: 1964-078C. USAF Sat Cat: 945. Mars probe intended to photograph Mars on a flyby trajectory. Zond 2 was launched from an earth parking orbit towards Mars to test space-borne systems and to carry out scientific investigations. Zond 2 carried six electric rocket engines of plasma type that served as actuators of the attitude control system. The communications system failed during April 1965. The spacecraft flew by Mars on August 6, 1965, at a distance of 1500 km.References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64, 118, 296.

• Cosmos 60 Nation: USSR. Program: Luna. Payload: E-6 s/n 9. Mass: 6,530 kg (14,390 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Lunar. Spacecraft: Luna E-6. Agency: MOM. Perigee: 195 km (121 mi). Apogee: 248 km (154 mi). Inclination: 64.70 deg. Period: 88.90 min. COSPAR: 1965-018A. USAF Sat Cat: 1246. Decay Date: 1965-03-17. The stage with the payload remained in Earth orbit as Kosmos-60. References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64, 65.

• Luna failure - stage 3 engine failure. Nation: USSR. Program: Luna. Payload: E-6 s/n 8. Class: Planetary. Type: Lunar. Spacecraft: Luna E-6. Agency: RVSN. COSPAR: F650410A. Decay Date: 1965-04-10. The upper stages fell apart on re-entry into the atmosphere.. References: 5, 64, 65.

• Molniya 1-01 Nation: USSR. Program: Molniya. Payload: Molniya-1. Mass: 1,600 kg (3,500 lb). Class: Communications. Spacecraft: Molniya-1. Agency: MOM. Perigee: 538 km (334 mi). Apogee: 39,300 km (24,400 mi). Inclination: 65.50 deg. Period: 707.30 min. COSPAR: 1965-030A. USAF Sat Cat: 1324. Decay Date: 1979-08-16. First announced launch of Soviet communications satellite. Television programme transmission and long range two way multi channel telephone and telegraph communications. Orbital characteristics after correction of 2 May 1965. References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64.

• Zond 3 Nation: USSR. Program: Mars. Payload: 3MV-4A s/n 3. Mass: 959 kg (2,114 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Mars. Spacecraft: Mars 3MV-4A. Agency: MOM. COSPAR: 1965-056A. USAF Sat Cat: 1454. Zond 3 was towards the moon and interplanetary space. The spacecraft was equipped with a TV system that provided automatic inflight film processing. On July 20, during lunar flyby, 25 pictures of very good quality were taken of the lunar farside from distances of 11,570 to 9960 km. The photos covered 19,000,000 km square of the lunar surface. Photo transmissions by facsimile were returned to earth from a distance of 2,200,000 km on July 29 and were retransmitted later from a distance of 31,500,000 km, thus proving the ability of the communications system. After the lunar flyby, Zond 3 continued space exploration in a heliocentric orbit. Those pictures showed clearly the heavily cratered nature of the surface. This mission dramatized the advances in space photography that the U.S.S.R. had made since its first far-side effort six years earlier.References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 16, 64, 296.

• E-6 Launch Postponement Nation: USSR. Program: Luna. Payload: E-6. Class: Planetary. Type: Lunar. Spacecraft: Luna E-6. The launch was delayed due to malfunction of the RKS system of the Stages 1/2's control system during pre-launch service. References: 64.

• Luna 7 Nation: USSR. Program: Luna. Payload: E-6 s/n 11. Mass: 1,504 kg (3,315 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Lunar. Spacecraft: Luna E-6. Agency: MOM. COSPAR: 1965-077A. USAF Sat Cat: 1610. Decay Date: 1965-10-07. Lunar soft landing attempt. The Luna 7 spacecraft was intended to achieve a soft landing on the Moon. However, due to premature retrofire and cutoff of the retrorockets, the spacecraft impacted the lunar surface in the Sea of Storms. References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64, 296.

• Molniya 1-02 Nation: USSR. Program: Molniya. Payload: Molniya-1. Mass: 1,600 kg (3,500 lb). Class: Communications. Spacecraft: Molniya-1. Agency: MOM. Perigee: 487 km (302 mi). Apogee: 39,921 km (24,805 mi). Inclination: 65.20 deg. Period: 718.80 min. COSPAR: 1965-080A. USAF Sat Cat: 1621. Decay Date: 1967-03-17. France - USSR communications link. Second communications satellite 'Molniya-1'. Television programme transmission and long-range, two-way multi-channel telephone, phototelegraph and telegraph communications. References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 64.

• Luna 8 Nation: USSR. Program: Luna. Payload: E-6 s/n 12. Mass: 1,550 kg (3,410 lb). Class: Planetary. Type: Lunar. Spacecraft: Luna E-6. Agency: MOM. COSPAR: 1965-099A. USAF Sat Cat: 1810. Decay Date: 1965-12-06. Lunar soft landing attempt failed. Luna 8's objectives were to test a soft lunar landing system and scientific research. Weighing 1,552 kg (3,422 lbs), the spacecraft was following a trajectory close to the calculated one and the equipment was functioning normally. However, the retrofire was late, and the spacecraft impacted the lunar surface in the Sea of Storms. Tass reported that "the systems were functioning normally at all stages of the landing except the final touchdown." The mission did complete the experimental development of the star-orientation system and ground control of radio equipment, flight trajectory, and other instrumentation.References: 1, 2, 5, 6, 16, 64, 296.

• Waiting on Voskhod Nation: USSR. Program: Voskhod. Flight: Voskhod 3. The search for the cause of the Molniya booster failure continues. A high oscillation vibration problem with the engine that has cropped up twice (but only on the test stand) has been cleared of responsibility. Tereshkova is going on a tour of Sweden. The cosmonauts' wives are preparing a letter denouncing Popovich for shutting down his wife's career and his abuse of her. Throughout the period April to May Kamanin is preoccupied with his wife, who is extremely ill in the hospital.References: 376.

• Voskhod 3 State Commission Nation: USSR. Program: Voskhod. Spacecraft: Voskhod. Flight: Voskhod 3. Chief Designer A A Golubev from OKB-154 Voronezh discusses the failure of his engines on the third stage of the Molniya launch on 27 March. He points out that the third stage has operated successfully in 500 stand trials and over 100 flights. It is true there have been seven instances of high-frequency oscillations in test stand runs of the engines, going back to the time of Tereshkova's flight, but these are felt to be due to the test stand propellant feed set-up and would not occur in flight engines. Despite no definite cause having been found for the third stage failure on 27 March, he guarantees his engines ready for flight. Other commission members question his optimism, but finally his guarantee is accepted, dependent on a thorough quality assurance review and certification by military officials responsible for control of the production processes at the factory. Voronin certifies the ECS system for an 18 day flight. Tsybin certifies the readiness of the spacecraft, and Shabarov the readiness of the booster at the launch centre. The absence of Korolev's presence is sorely felt, especially in handling the opposition of Smirnov and Pashkov to the flight. Nevertheless, the order is given for final preparations to proceed, with launch set for 22-28 May. However the confidence of the commission members in standing up to Smirnov is tenuous, and it is clear that any delay into June or July will kill the flight.References: 376.

• McDowell, Jonathan, Jonathan's Space Home Page, Harvard University, 1997-present. Jonathan McDowell's complete on-line listing of all objects orbited and over 20,000 rocket launches Accessed at: http://www.planet4589.org/jsr.html.

• Semenov, Yuri P Editor, Raketno-kosmicheskaya korporatsiya 'Energia' imeni S P Koroleva, Moscow, Russia, 1996. Russian in-house history of the Energia Corporation and its predecessors. Unprecedented detail, photographs, designations, and drawings, on the products of Korolev's OKB.

• Isakowitz, Steven J,, International Reference to Space Launch Systems Second Edition, AIAA, Washington DC, 1991 (succeeded by 2000 edition). ISBN: 1563473534. Superseded by the later editions. More at amazon.com...

• Semenov, Yu. P., S P Korolev Space Corporation Energia, RKK Energia, 1994. ISBN: 1896522815. Dual English/Russian language picture book of the history of the Energia Corporation. Many unique photos and drawings of Korolev's rockets and spacecraft. Republished by Apogee books in 2000. More at amazon.com...

• Varfolomyev, Timothy, Spaceflight, "Soviet Rocketry that Conquered Space - Part 2", 1996, Volume 38, page 48. 1: Sp 95/37-260; Sp 96/38-31 (8K71 launches); 2: Sp 96/38-48; 3: Sp 96/38-206; Sp 96/38-317 (designatons); 4: Sp 98/40-28; 5:Sp 98/40-85