| Proton |
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The Proton launch vehicle has been the medium-lift workhorse of the Soviet and Russian space programs for over forty years. Although constantly criticized within Russia for its use of toxic and ecologically-damaging storable liquid propellants, it has out-lasted all challengers, and no replacement is in sight. Development of the Proton began in 1962 as a two-stage vehicle that could be used to launch large military payloads or act as a ballistic missile with a 100 megaton nuclear warhead. The ICBM was cancelled in 1965, but development of a three-stage version for the crash program to send a Soviet man around the moon began in 1964. The hurried development caused severe reliability problems in early production. But these were eventually solved, and from the 1970's the Proton was used to launch all Russian space stations, medium- and geosynchronous orbit satellites, and lunar and planetary probes. The Proton had its origin in the early 1960's, at a time when all Soviet rockets required military justification to be developed. At this time the military-political leadership formulated a requirement for a heavy rocket that could be used to launch large military payloads into space as well as act as a ballistic missile for nuclear warheads up to 100 MT in yield. There were competitors for the original military Global Rocket 2 (GR-2) requirement. The OKB-1 of S P Korolev had begun design of the enormous N1 lunar rocket, and had already put the Soviet Union first in ballistic missiles and space through use of its R-7 ICBM. Korolev was working on the successor R-9 ICBM, and the NII variant of the N1 (using the top two stages) could meet the GR-2 requirement. M K Yangel's KB Yuzhnoye proposed creation of two related launch vehicles to fulfill the military requirement - the R-46 heavy ICBM and the R-56 launch vehicle. These would cover the entire range of military requirements. Yangel's OKB had already supplied the military with the great majority of its operational strategic rockets - the R-12 and R-14 IRBM's and the R-16 ICBM. OKB-52, under V N Chelomei, proposed to create a related family of rockets, each designed from the beginning for dual use as ballistic missiles and space launchers - the medium UR-200, the heavy UR-500 and the huge UR-700 for lunar requirements. By 16 March and 1 August 1961 the Central Committee and Politburo had approved development of the UR-200 (8K81) universal rocket. The UR-200 draft project was completed in July 1962. The GR-2 project required that the factory-completed modules of the rocket be transported by rail to the launch complex, quickly assembled at the site, followed by automatic erection and launch. Approval to proceed with the UR-500 8K82 was provided in the Central Committee decree of 24 April 1962. However Chelomei had begun studies on the design considerably earlier, in the second half of 1961. At first the launch vehicle was simply to consist of 4 two-stage UR-200 rockets lashed together, the first and second stages working in parallel in clusters. A third stage would be modified from the UR-200 second stage. (Yangel proposed a similar solution, his R-56 rockets being composed of R-46's clustered together). However study of this configuration, which included manufacturing of a dynamic test article (now in the TsNIIMASH museum), indicated that the payload capacity could not meet the military's requirements. The selected solution was to develop a conventional tandem three-stage vehicle. The upper two stages would be modified versions of the UR-200 first and second stages. However the first stage would have to be a new design. There were two logical solutions, both of which were implemented by the Americans in their rockets of the same class: to take a two stage rocket and attach large solid fuel boosters in parallel to the central body, as was done in the Titan 3C design; or to build a new powerful first stage, as was done on the Saturn I rocket. Chelomei additionally had to consider what would be needed for his UR-700 lunar launch vehicle. His solution was to build a core module of the largest possible rail-transportable diameter (4.15 m). This could consist of an oxidizer tank, or a fuel tank with the engine installation. The design had to meet requirements from two sides. On the one hand, the maximum length and diameter of the modules was dictated by the size of rail wagons and platforms, and existing rail tunnels, waterways, and turntables. On the other hand, the size of the rocket stage, and its corresponding volume and mass, were driven by the UR-500 launch mass and characteristics of the future UR-700. Two variants of the first stage were considered: polyblock and monoblock. The monoblock approach was that the first stage be assembled from two separate modules with the same diameter: an upper oxidizer module and a lower fuel and engine block. In assembly trials of this design it proved difficult, because of the height of the first stage, to obtain access to the upper stages and payload atop the rocket. The payload advantage of this design was relatively small compared to the alternative. This variant was studied by Chelomei's Filial Number 1, Chief Designer V N Bugayskiy, under the lead engineer M S Mishetyan. The second (polyblock) variant consisted of a centre large diameter oxidizer tank surrounded by several smaller diameter fuel tanks. This version could be assembled in a special rig with the lateral blocks being sequentially mounted on the centre. This had the advantage of easier installation of the upper stages and payload due to the smaller length of the first stage. This variant was studied in Filial 1 under the lead engineer E. T. Radchenko. In January 1962 this design was chosen as most advantageous, following studies that indicated improved wind loads and bending moment characteristics compared to the monoblock design. The polyblock design received patent number 36616 in 26 July 1966. Named on the patent were V N Chelomei, V N Bugayckiy, V A Birodov, G D Dermichev, N I Yegorov, V K Karrask, Yu P Kolesnikov, Ya B Nodelman, and E T Radchenko. Another key issue was the selection of the engine for the first stage. In order that the rocket could meet the quick response requirements of the military, it was decided that it would use storable liquid fuels. These would allow the fuelled rocket to be held in readiness for quick launch over a wide range of temperature conditions and eliminate the need for thermostatically controlled storage of the rocket. Nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) and unsymmetrical di-methyl hydrazine (UDMH) had already been selected as the propellants for the UR-200 and therefore for the corresponding upper stages of the UR-500. However the largest rocket engine developed for the UR-200 was the 50 metric ton thrust 8D45 engine of S A Kosberg's KBKhA design bureau. By the beginning of work on the UR-500 more than 700 trials of this engine had been undertaken, including 225 resource trials. The advantage of using this engine was that it could contribute to the desired short length of the first stage. However the drawback was that to achieve the required first stage thrust, 15 to 16 engines would have to be clustered, which, from the point of view of V N Chelomei, was much too many. In November 1961 OKB-52 began to collaborate with V P Glushko's OKB-456 in developing a more appropriate engine. Glushko had completed a storable liquid engine design of 150 metric tons for use in Korolev's N1. However Korolev refused to accept this design, due to his refusal to use toxic propellants in his rockets and his belief that such propellants could never deliver the required specific impulse. Korolev insisted on development of an oxygen-kerosene engine; Glushko categorically refused to do so. As a result, the two leading Soviet rocket designers irrevocably split. Korolev had to turn for development of his N1 engines to the aviation engine OKB of N D Kuznetsov. Since Chelomei agreed with Glushko on the selection of propellants, Glushko's N1 engine instead went into the first stage of the UR-500. In May 1962 advanced project UR-500 was published. The initial design featured four fixed Glushko engines mounted below the core, with four gimbaled Kosberg engines on the lateral tanks. The second stage of the UR-500 was a larger-diameter variant of the first stage of the UR-200, with the engines gimbaled for directional control. The third stage used the UR-200's fixed engine with a four-nozzle steering engine. In order to meet the constant diameter requirement the third stage used toroidal propellant tanks. Development of the engines and further elaboration of the study led to modifications to the original design of the first stage. Glushko conducted tests of the new engine from 1961 to 1963, followed by tests of the clustered engine assembly from June 1963 to January 1965. Through use of a regenerative fuel pump cycle Glushko was able to improve the thrust of the engine by 12.5%. It was therefore decided to use only the large Glushko engine in the first stage. The first layout had one engine at the base of the core and 4 to 8 fuel tanks with peripheral engines. Now the centre engine was abandoned and the 'clean' oxidizer tank core was surrounded by six fuel tank/engine assemblies. This had the advantage of reducing the length of the stage while increasing the dry weight fraction. The 29 April 1962 decree ordered development of this powerful new rocket to be completed within three years. This was a difficult task, considering the factory and launch facilities that would have to be built to allow testing of the rocket to begin. Head of the original UR-500 development team was P A Ivensen. In 1962 this role was taken by Yu N Trufanov. At the project stage the technical parameters of the rocket were developed by D A Polukhin (subsequently chief of the team), V K Karrask, G D Dermichev, V A Virodov, E T Radchenko, E S Kulaga, N N Mirkin, Yu P Kolosnov, V F Gusev, and A T Tarasov. The launch complex at Tyuratam was designed and built by GSKB Spetsmash in accordance with a decree of 26 May 1962. There were two pads, located 600 m apart and shielded against rocket explosions so that on-pad failure of a vehicle would not destroy the complex. As payloads for the UR-500, Chelomei considered a broad spectrum of space craft, destined to solve defense, scientific investigation, and national economic tasks. These were to be called raketoplans - piloted spacecraft for solving military tasks in space. For example, orbital raketoplans were intended to fulfill intelligence, satellite inspection, and destruction tasks. For these purposes the raketoplan was to be equipped with an orbital maneuvering engine, targeting systems, rendezvous systems, and space-to-space weapons. Later raketoplans would be used for scientific tasks, including flight to the moon and return to earth, and economic exploitation of near-earth space. Due to their high lift to drag ratios, raketoplans could, after completing their tasks in space, make a guided descent into the earth's atmosphere with a landing on Soviet territory. The draft project UR-500 was completed in 1963. The fundamental technological problems of the project had been solved by the end of 1964. In the early fall of that year, Khrushchev and the political leadership of the country visited Baikonur. Chelomei with great pride guided Khrushchev around a dummy UR-500 installed in its launch gantry at the new launch complex, presented the heavy transporters for the launch vehicle and showed a scale model of the launch silo planned for the combat version. Khrushchev's comment was 'what should we build - communism or silos for the UR-500?' It was clear that Khrushchev was not very supportive of the military version of the UR-500… Soon thereafter Khrushchev was ousted from power and the new leadership, under Brezhnev, was adverse to all projects Khrushchev had supported. This included Chelomei and his OKB-52. An expert commission under M V Keldysh was directed to examine all of Chelomei's projects and make recommendations as to which should be cancelled. Keldysh found that Yangel's R-36 universal rocket was superior to Chelomei's UR-200. The UR-200 was accordingly cancelled. The UR-500 was to continue, not as a huge ICBM but only in the space launcher role. The raketoplan was stopped, but work on the high-priority LK-1manned lunar flyby program continued. In the spring of 1965, when Chelomei's activities were still under investigation, the Khrunichev factory completed construction of the first UR-500. In place of the third stage, an automated space physics laboratory 'Proton', for measurement of high energy particles, was built. The Proton satellites used the structural shell of the rocket's third stage. All of the components were shipped by rail to Tyuratam for launch from the new rocket complex on the left ('Chelomeevskoy') arm of the range. The rocket was assembled in the Proton MIK assembly building at site 92 at Baikonur. The special transporter-installer took the rocket by rail from the MIK to launch site number 81, and the rockets was raised from the horizontal to the vertical position and installed on the launch table. Unlike the R-7 'Semyorka', the '500 was not suspended above the flame pit but fastened by its tail directly on the launch table. The UR-500 had a very cleanly designed compound umbilical cable which connected all services to a single coupling in the base of the core oxidizer tank. This umbilical remained connected until the rocket reached a height of 100 to 150 mm, then automatically detached and was retracted into a protective cover on the launch pad. Doors also closed on the launch vehicle, making a hermetic seal. The first launch was not without problems. A leak in the oxidizer pipeline resulted in nitrogen tetroxide spilling on electrical wires. The question was: proceed with the launch or abort? Chelomei decided to go ahead, and on 16 July 1965 the first UR-500 successfully launched the Proton 1 satellite. In the first hours after launch specialists from OKB-52 could only receive signals in the first hours that indicated the satellite was 'alive'. However it later functioned normally and provided physics data for 45 days. Aside from its index 8K82 and 'company' designation UR-500, at the first launch the rocket was called 'Gerkules' (other sources say 'Atlantis'), as indicated by the large symbol on the second stage skin. This name was however was not taken up. In the open press it was known only by the name of its first payload, 'Proton'. Flight trials of the two-stage variant of the rocket went through 6 July 1966. In four launches three heavy Proton satellites reached orbit. The third launch failed when the second stage cut off, and the rocket crashed in the Akmolinsk region. The payload capacity of the Proton was given in the press as 12.2 metric tons; however this included the empty mass of the last stage. The payload of the two-stage version was really only 8.4 metric tons, only 24% more than Korolev's Soyuz rocket based on the R-7, even though the UR-500 was 75% larger. These deficiencies would be rectified in the three-stage version, fully developed in accordance with the decree of 3 August 1964. Manufacturer: Chelomei. Launches: 334. Failures: 40. Success Rate: 88.02%. First Launch Date: 1965-07-16. Last Launch Date: 2008-01-28. Launch data is: continuing.
Version: Initial UR-500.
While Chelomei's OKB was still preparing the UR-200 draft project, it was proposed to use this as the basis for the UR-500 heavy universal rocket, with five times the payload capacity. These initial 1961 studies consisted of 4 two-stage UR-200 rockets lashed together, the first and second stages working in parallel in clusters. A third stage would be modified from the UR-200 second stage. However analysis indicated that the payload capacity could not meet the military’s requirements. The design was in response to the military GR-2 global rocket requirement for a booster that could orbit six multiple nuclear warheads. A subscale dynamic test article of the design was preserved in the Tsniimash museum. An echo of this configuration in the final Proton design was in the upper stage engines, which were direct descendants of those on the UR-200. The payload was said to be 10,000 kg as opposed to the 12,000 kg for the selected UR-500 polyblock configuration. LEO Payload: 10,000 kg (22,000 lb). to: 200 km Orbit. Liftoff Thrust: 7,994.700 kN (1,797,280 lbf). Total Mass: 571,050 kg (1,258,940 lb). Core Diameter: 3.00 m (9.80 ft). Total Length: 48.00 m (157.00 ft).
Monoblock UR-500.
During UR-500 design studies, two variants of the first stage were considered: polyblock and monoblock. The monoblock approach was that the first stage be assembled from two separate modules with the same diameter: an upper oxidiser module and a lower fuel and engine block. In assembly trials of this design it proved difficult, because of the height of the first stage, to obtain access to the upper stages and payload atop the rocket. Although there was a payload advantage compared to the more compact polyblock design, this was relatively small and outweighed by the operational difficulties. This variant was studied by Chelomei’s Filial Number 1, Chief Designer V N Bugayskiy, under the lead engineer M S Mishetyan. The design mass and engine performance figures for this version have been given; the calculated payload is 12,000 kg.
LEO Payload: 12,000 kg (26,000 lb). to: 200 km Orbit. Liftoff Thrust: 8,119.800 kN (1,825,404 lbf). Total Mass: 543,400 kg (1,197,900 lb). Core Diameter: 6.20 m (20.30 ft). Total Length: 54.00 m (177.00 ft).
Polyblock UR-500.
UR-500 design studies considered two variants of the first stage: polyblock and monoblock. The polyblock variant consisted of a centre large diameter oxidizer tank surrounded by several smaller diameter fuel tanks. This version could be assembled in a special rig with the lateral blocks being sequentially mounted on the centre. In January 1962 this design was chosen as most advantageous, following studies that indicated improved wind loads and bending moment characteristics compared to the monoblock design. The developed version of the design would become known as the Proton. This had the advantage of easier installation of the upper stages and payload due to the smaller length of the first stage. This variant was studied in Filial 1 under the lead engineer E. T. Radchenko. The polyblock design received patent number 36616 in 26 July 1966. Named on the patent were V N Chelomei, V N Bugayckiy, V A Birodov, G D Dermichev, N I Yegorov, V K Karrask, Yu P Kolesnikov, Ya B Nodelman, and E T Radchenko. The design mass and engine performance figures for this version have been given; the calculated payload is 12,000 kg. This is coincidentally very close to the 12,200 kg payload mass given (incorrectly) at the time of the launch of the two-stage variant of the launch vehicle, Proton 1. LEO Payload: 12,000 kg (26,000 lb). to: 200 km Orbit. Liftoff Thrust: 8,119.800 kN (1,825,404 lbf). Total Mass: 554,940 kg (1,223,430 lb). Core Diameter: 4.10 m (13.40 ft). Total Length: 43.00 m (141.00 ft).
UR-500.
The original UR-500 two stage configuration was designed as a monster ICBM. It was flown four times from 1965, but never deployed as an operational missile. The design was succeeded by three and four stage versions for launching of large payloads into space. Data is accurate. Tsniimash has 1:10 model. Launches: 4. Failures: 1. First Launch Date: 1965-07-16. Last Launch Date: 1966-07-06. LEO Payload: 8,400 kg (18,500 lb). to: 200 km Orbit. at: 65.00 degrees. Apogee: 300 km (180 mi). Associated Spacecraft: N-4 . Liftoff Thrust: 8,847.000 kN (1,988,884 lbf). Total Mass: 595,490 kg (1,312,830 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 46.28 m (151.83 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft). Standard warhead mass: 12,200 kg (26,800 lb). Maximum range: 10,000 km (6,000 mi). Number Standard Warheads: 1. Standard warhead yield: 100,000 KT.
Proton-K.
Development of a three-stage version of the UR-500 was authorised in the decree of 3 August 1964. Decrees of 12 October and 11 November 1964 authorised development of the Almaz manned military space station and the manned circumlunar spacecraft LK-1 as payloads for the UR-500K. Remarkably, due to continuing failures, the 8K82K did not satisfactorily complete its state trials until its 61st launch (Salyut 6 / serial number 29501 / 29 September 1977). Thereafter it reached a level of launch reliability comparable to that of other world launch vehicles. Development of a three-stage version of the UR-500 was authorised in the decree of 3 August 1964. During development, in comparison to the original polyblock design, the engine performances were improved by about 5 seconds; the mass of the first stage increased by 71 tonnes; the second stage by 30 tonnes; and the third stage by 27 tonnes (more than doubled). These changes brought the low earth orbit payload from 12,000 kg up to almost 20,000 kg. The UR-500K, although it exceeded the launch mass of the 11A511 Soyuz by 2.22 times and the fuel mass by 2.25 times, was more efficient with a useful load by 2.78 times greater. However putting the new variant of Proton into service proved difficult. Decrees of 12 October and 11 November 1964 authorised development of the Almaz manned military space station and the manned circumlunar spacecraft LK-1 as payloads for the UR-500K. However at the same time Khrushchev was ousted from power. Chelomei lost his chief patron and his projects came under negative scrutiny by the new leadership. Although Korolev was opposed to the Proton, he now used it to his advantage. On 8 September 1965 Korolev presented several schemes for using Chelomei’s UR-500K to fly around the moon. One alternate was a two-part spaceship, using the Proton with the upper stage Block D from Korolev’s N1-L3 lunar project. This would launch Korolev’s 7K-L1 spacecraft (derived from the 7K-OK Soyuz spacecraft) onto a translunar trajectory. This project received the name UR-500K-L1, and was adopted in place of Chelomei’s LK-1. It required construction of 18 UR-500K rockets, which, in a combination flight-test and government trials program, would send L1 spacecraft around the moon, at first unmanned, then manned. As a result of Korolev’s seizure of the project, the first flights of the three stage Proton included Korolev’s fourth Block D stage. Due to delays in the Almaz military space station, it was pre-empted by an OKB-1 civilian derivative, the Zarya. The first launch of the basic three-stage UR-500K vehicle, without the Block D upper stage, did not come until the launch of the Proton 4 physics satellite, almost two years after flights of the four-stage version had begun. Remarkably, due to continuing failures, the 8K82K did not satisfactorily complete its state trials until its 61st launch (Salyut 6 / serial number 29501 / 29 September 1977). Thereafter it reached a level of launch reliability comparable to that of other world launch vehicles. Launches: 31. Failures: 4. Success Rate: 87.10%. First Launch Date: 1968-11-16. Last Launch Date: 2000-07-12. LEO Payload: 19,760 kg (43,560 lb). to: 186 km Orbit. at: 51.60 degrees. Associated Spacecraft: Almaz-T, Almaz OPS, Iskra, ISS Zarya, ISS Zvezda, Kristall, Kvant, Kvant-2, Mak, Mir , N-6 , Priroda, Salyut 1, Salyut 4, Salyut 6, Salyut 7, Spektr, TKS , TKS VA . Other Associated Spacecraft: OPS + TKS, Almaz OPS-2, KSI, Almaz APOS, Almaz-2, Almaz-1B, LK-1, ISS Commercial Enterprise Module, Tellura, Vega 5VS, Spektr - Original, TGR, 37K-Mir, LKS, Raketoplan, Mars 5M. Further Associated Spacecraft: Space Station Designs - 1982, Space Station Freedom , Power Tower Space Station - 1984, Space Station 1984, Polar Platform, Space Tug, Orbital Manoeuvring Vehicle, Space Operations Center, . Liftoff Thrust: 8,847.000 kN (1,988,884 lbf). Total Mass: 693,810 kg (1,529,580 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 50.00 m (164.00 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft). Launch Price $: 50.000 million. in: 1994 price dollars.
Proton-K/D.
This four stage version of the Proton was originally designed to send manned circumlunar spacecraft into translunar trajectory. Guidance to the Block D stage must be supplied by spacecraft. The design was proposed on 8 September 1965 by Korolev as an alternate to Chelomei's LK-1 circumlunar mission. It combined the Proton 8K82K booster for the LK-1 with the N1 lunar Block D stage to boost a stripped-down Soyuz 7K-L1 spacecraft around the moon. The Korolev design was selected, and first flight came on 10 March 1967. The crash lunar program led to a poor launch record. Following a protracted ten year test period, the booster finally reached a level of launch reliability comparable to that of other world launch vehicles. Development of a three-stage version of the UR-500 was authorised in the decree of 3 August 1964. Decrees of 12 October and 11 November 1964 authorised development of the Almaz manned military space station and the manned circumlunar spacecraft LK-1 as payloads for the UR-500K. However at the same time Khrushchev was ousted from power. Chelomei lost his chief patron and his projects came under negative scrutiny by the new leadership. On 8 September 1965 Korolev presented an several schemes for using Chelomei’s UR-500 to fly around the moon. One alternate was a two-part spaceship, using the Proton with the upper stage Block D from Korolev’s N1-L3 lunar project. This would launch Korolev’s 7K-L1 spacecraft (derived from the 7K-OK Soyuz) onto a translunar trajectory. This project received the name UR-500K-L1, and was adopted in place of Chelomei’s LK-1 circumlunar project. It required construction of 18 UR-500K rockets, which, in a combination flight-test and government trials program, would send L1 spacecraft around the moon, at first unmanned, then manned. By 4 October 1966 a dummy rocket was mounted at the launch site. The dummy was loaded with imitation propellants (kerosene as fuel and water/ethyl alcohol as oxidiser). The nitrogen tetroxide oxidiser had to be kept above -11 degrees C, and it was originally planned for a thermostatically-controlled electrical heating of the tank walls to achieve this. It was ultimately decided that the risk of explosion of such a system was too great, and the system was abandoned. The first flight rocket (serial number 22701) began assembly on 21 November 1966, with mechanical assembly completed by 29 November. Electrical connections and tests were completed by 4 December 1966. Due to New Year’s holidays work did not resume until 28 January 1967. By 28 February the fully assembled booster / spacecraft unit was completed in the MIK, including the 7K-L1P boilerplate spacecraft. The launch tower was added on 2 March 1967 and the system was declared ready for launch. A serious potential problem during preparations was the discovery that fuel gases could lead to pump cavitation at the turbine exits. Tests on the ground showed that the problem was not the fuel itself, but in the monitoring equipment. Although the first launch of the UR-500K-L1 on 10 March was successful, the record for the balance of the manned circumlunar project was dismal. Of the remaining 11 launches of the project, only that of Zond-7 was recognised as fully successful. In 60% of the failures the fault was in the launch vehicle; in 20% the Block D; and in 20% the spacecraft. Therefore the probability of successfully carrying out the objective of the project - safely flying a cosmonaut around the moon and returning him to earth - was only 9%. Remarkably, due to continuing failures, the 8K82K did not satisfactorily complete its state trials until its 61st launch (Salyut 6 / serial number 29501 / 29 September 1977). Thereafter it reached a level of launch reliability comparable to that of other world launch vehicles. Launches: 40. Failures: 15. Success Rate: 62.50%. First Launch Date: 1967-03-10. Last Launch Date: 1975-10-16. Payload: 5,390 kg (11,880 lb). to a: translunar trajectory. Associated Spacecraft: Luna Ye-8, Luna Ye-8-5, Luna Ye-8-5M, Luna Ye-8-LS, Mars M-69, Mars M-71, Mars M-73, Soyuz 7K-L1 , Soyuz 7K-L1E, Soyuz 7K-L1P , Venera 4V-1, DLB Beacon Lander. Liftoff Thrust: 8,847.000 kN (1,988,884 lbf). Total Mass: 707,170 kg (1,559,040 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 57.00 m (187.00 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft). Launch Price $: 70.000 million. in: 1994 price dollars.
Proton-K/D-1.
This derivative of the original four stage Block D / 11S824 version of the Proton was used from 1978 to launch Lavochkin OKB planetary probes (Mars, Venera) and high earth orbit astronomical observatories (Astron, Granat). Guidance to the Block D-1 stage must be supplied by spacecraft. Equipped with N2O4/UDMH verniers for precise placement of payloads in high orbits or planetary trajectories.
Launches: 11. First Launch Date: 1976-08-09. Last Launch Date: 1989-12-01. Payload: 4,720 kg (10,400 lb). to a: transvenusian trajectory. Associated Spacecraft: Astron, Granat, Luna Ye-8-5M, Vega 5VK, Venera 4V-1, Venera 4V-2. Liftoff Thrust: 8,847.000 kN (1,988,884 lbf). Total Mass: 707,810 kg (1,560,450 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 57.00 m (187.00 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft). Launch Price $: 70.000 million. in: 1994 price dollars.
Proton-K/D-2.
This four stage version of the Proton was a modification of the original Block D / 11S824M for launch of late 1980's Lavochkin OKB probes on missions to Mars. Guidance to the Block D-2 stage must be supplied by spacecraft.
Launches: 3. Failures: 1. First Launch Date: 1988-07-07. Last Launch Date: 1996-11-16. Payload: 6,220 kg (13,710 lb). to a: transmartian trajectory. Associated Spacecraft: Fobos 1F, Mars M1. Liftoff Thrust: 8,847.000 kN (1,988,884 lbf). Total Mass: 710,710 kg (1,566,840 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 57.00 m (187.00 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft). Launch Price $: 70.000 million. in: 1994 price dollars.
Proton-K/DM.
The original four stage Proton / Block D configuration was used until 1976, at which time it was replaced by a modernised version equipped with N2O4/UDMH verniers for precise placement of payloads in geosynchronous orbit and its own self-contained guidance unit. This was accepted into military service in 1978 with the first Raduga launch. The stage was first developed for launch of gesynchronous military communications and early warning satellites (Raduga, Ekran, Gorizont, Potok, SPRN). Its later versions continue in use for launch of MEO and geosynchronous comsats, and was Russia's most successful commercial launcher. 6 stage vehicle consisting of 1 x 8S810 + 1 x 8S811 + 1 x 8S812 + 1 x Perekhodnik + 1 x 11S86 + 2 x SOZ Launches: 66. Failures: 6. Success Rate: 90.91%. First Launch Date: 1974-03-26. Last Launch Date: 1990-06-20. LEO Payload: 5,000 kg (11,000 lb). Payload: 1,880 kg (4,140 lb). to a: geosynchronous orbital trajectory. Apogee: 40,000 km (24,000 mi). Associated Spacecraft: Ekran , Gorizont , Molniya-1, Potok, Prognoz SPRN, Raduga. Liftoff Thrust: 8,847.000 kN (1,988,884 lbf). Total Mass: 711,360 kg (1,568,280 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 59.00 m (193.00 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft). Launch Price $: 70.000 million. in: 1994 price dollars.
Proton-K/DM-2. Status: Active. Other Designations: Proton 8K82K / Block DM-2. Library of Congress Designation: D-1e. Department of Defence Designation: SL-12. Article Number: 8K82K / 11S861. Manufacturer's Designation: UR-500K. This improved four stage version uses the Block DM-2 / 11S861 fourth stage, which has its own guidance unit. This reduces payload but does not require the spacecraft's guidance system to provide steering commands to booster. Replaced the original Block DM / 11S86 version from 1982 to 1995. Used for launch of Glonass navigation satellites into medium earth orbit; and launch of Luch, Ekran-M, Potok, Raduga, Gorizont, Raduga-1, Elektro, and Gals communications satellites into geosynchronous orbit. Commercial version with Saab payload adapter-seperation system for Western payloads was dubbed 'Block DM1'.
Launches: 106. Failures: 8. Success Rate: 92.45%. First Launch Date: 1982-10-12. Last Launch Date: 2007-10-26. Payload: 1,880 kg (4,140 lb). to a: geosynchronous orbital trajectory. Associated Spacecraft: AS 4000, Ekran-M , Ekspress, Elektro , Etalon, Gals , Glonass , Gorizont , Luch , Potok, Prognoz SPRN, Raduga-1, Raduga , Tselina-2. Liftoff Thrust: 8,847.000 kN (1,988,884 lbf). Total Mass: 711,110 kg (1,567,720 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 59.00 m (193.00 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft). Launch Price $: 70.000 million. in: 1994 price dollars.
Proton-K/DM-2 DM1. Version of the 11S861 with adapter for Lockheed Martin AS 4000 bus spacecraft.
LEO Payload: 5,000 kg (11,000 lb). Payload: 4,350 kg (9,590 lb). to a: geosynchronous transfer orbit trajectory. Apogee: 40,000 km (24,000 mi). Liftoff Thrust: 9,500.000 kN (2,135,600 lbf). Total Mass: 691,500 kg (1,524,400 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 57.20 m (187.60 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft).
Proton-K/DM-2M. Status: Active. Other Designations: Proton / Block DM-2M. Library of Congress Designation: D-1e. Department of Defence Designation: SL-12. Article Number: 8K82K / 11S861-01. Manufacturer's Designation: UR-500K. This four stage version uses the Block DM-2M / 11S861-01 upper stage, which has its own self-contained guidance unit. This reduces payload but does not require the spacecraft's guidance system to provide steering commands to booster. Used for launches of Russian geosynchronous satellites from 1994 on.
Launches: 42. Failures: 2. Success Rate: 95.24%. First Launch Date: 1994-01-20. Last Launch Date: 2006-06-17. Payload: 1,880 kg (4,140 lb). to a: geosynchronous orbital trajectory. Associated Spacecraft: AS 2100, Ekspress , FS-1300, Gals , Glonass, HS 601, Kupon, LMI, Spacebus 3000, Yamal. Liftoff Thrust: 8,847.000 kN (1,988,884 lbf). Total Mass: 712,460 kg (1,570,700 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 59.00 m (193.00 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft). Launch Price $: 70.000 million. in: 1994 price dollars.
Proton-K/DM-2M DM3. Version of the 11S861-01 with Saab payload adapter-seperation system for insertion of Hughes HS-601 bus spacecraft into geosynchronous orbit.
LEO Payload: 5,000 kg (11,000 lb). Payload: 4,350 kg (9,590 lb). to a: geosynchronous transfer orbit trajectory. Apogee: 40,000 km (24,000 mi). Liftoff Thrust: 9,500.000 kN (2,135,600 lbf). Total Mass: 691,500 kg (1,524,400 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 57.20 m (187.60 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft).
Version: Proton-K/DM-2M DM4. Version of the 11S861-01 with Saab payload adapter-seperation system for insertion of FS-1300 bus spacecraft into geosynchronous orbit. LEO Payload: 5,000 kg (11,000 lb). Payload: 4,350 kg (9,590 lb). to a: geosynchronous transfer orbit trajectory. Apogee: 40,000 km (24,000 mi). Liftoff Thrust: 9,500.000 kN (2,135,600 lbf). Total Mass: 691,500 kg (1,524,400 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 57.20 m (187.60 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft). Proton-K/17S40. Status: Retired 2002. Other Designations: Proton / Block DM-5. Library of Congress Designation: D-1e. Department of Defence Designation: SL-12. Article Number: 8K82K / 17S40. Manufacturer's Designation: UR-500K. Version of Proton using Block DM-5 / 17S40 fourth stage. This stage has a new payload adapter for use with heavier paylods launched into sub-synchronous orbits. Used for launch of Arkon reconnaisance satellite. Launches: 6. First Launch Date: 1997-06-06. Last Launch Date: 2002-10-17. LEO Payload: 6,000 kg (13,200 lb). to: 1,500 km Orbit. at: 63.00 degrees. Associated Spacecraft: Arkon-1, Integral, LM 700. Liftoff Thrust: 8,847.000 kN (1,988,884 lbf). Total Mass: 708,410 kg (1,561,770 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 59.00 m (193.00 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft). Launch Price $: 70.000 million. in: 1994 price dollars.
Version: Proton-K/17S40 DM2. Version of the 17S40 with payload adapter for deployment of multiple LM 700 (Iridium) spacecraft into medium earth orbit. LEO Payload: 5,000 kg (11,000 lb). Payload: 4,350 kg (9,590 lb). to a: geosynchronous transfer orbit trajectory. Apogee: 40,000 km (24,000 mi). Liftoff Thrust: 9,500.000 kN (2,135,600 lbf). Total Mass: 691,500 kg (1,524,400 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 57.20 m (187.60 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft). Proton-K/Briz-M.
Earlier 8K82K model Proton, but Briz M storable propellant upper stage replaced the Block D cyrogenic stage. 4 stage vehicle consisting of 1 x 8S810 + 1 x 8S811 + 1 x 8S812 + 1 x Briz-M Launches: 4. Failures: 1. First Launch Date: 1999-07-05. Last Launch Date: 2003-12-10. LEO Payload: 21,000 kg (46,000 lb). to: 185 km Orbit. at: 51.60 degrees. Payload: 2,920 kg (6,430 lb). to a: geosynchronous orbital trajectory. Apogee: 40,000 km (24,000 mi). Associated Spacecraft: Gorizont, Raduga, Spacebus 3000. Liftoff Thrust: 9,469.100 kN (2,128,738 lbf). Total Mass: 712,800 kg (1,571,400 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 53.00 m (173.00 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft).
Proton-M/DM-2. Status: Active. Article Number: 8K82M / 11S861. Improved Proton-M stages, mated to the older 11S861 upper stage for certain payloads.
Launches: 1. First Launch Date: 2007-12-25. Last Launch Date: 2007-12-25.
Version: Proton-M/Briz-M. Status: Active. Other Designations: Proton M. Article Number: 8K82M. Improved Proton. Improvements in lower stages to reduce structural mass, increase thrust, and fully utilize propellants (reducing release of toxic chemicals in stage impact areas). Briz M storable propellant upper stage replaces Block D cyrogenic stage. Launches: 20. Failures: 2. First Launch Date: 2001-04-07. Last Launch Date: 2008-01-28. LEO Payload: 21,000 kg (46,000 lb). Payload: 4,500 kg (9,900 lb). to a: geosynchronous transfer orbit trajectory. Apogee: 40,000 km (24,000 mi). Associated Spacecraft: AS 2100, Ekran-M, Spacebus 3000. Liftoff Thrust: 21,000.000 kN (4,720,000 lbf). Total Mass: 712,800 kg (1,571,400 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 53.00 m (173.00 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft). UR-500MK. Status: Design 1975. In 1975 Chelomei proposed this version of the Proton powered by lox/kerosene NK-33 engines developed for the cancelled N1 moon booster. This would give the Soviet Union an equivalent to the all-new Zenit-2 booster being developed by Glushko, but at a fraction of the time and expense through the use of existing components. The proposal had no chance politically, and was never seriously considered.
In response to the Ministry of Defense's guidelines for third generation launch vehicles, the Ministry of General Machine Building issued on 29 April 1975 instructions for Chelomei to study boosters meeting the military's requirements. These included Lox/Kerosene propellants in place of the toxic N2O4/UDMH favored previously. Chelomei's competitor in the design, Glushko, was then head of NPO Energia which included Glushko's former OKB-456 engine design bureau. Therefore Chelomei was forced to propose using Kuznetsov Lox/Kerosene engines from the cancelled N1 moon program.
The UR-500MK was proposed in two configurations, the 11K98 and 11K99. In keeping with the mandated modular approach, the UR-500MK consisted of a core stage with a single modified NK-43 engine with a vacuum thrust of 190 metric tons. This was boosted by three (11K98) or six (11K99) lateral stages, each with a single modified NK-33 engine of 150 metric tons thrust. All engines ignited at lift-off, throttled to over 100% of their rated thrust. The core engine was apparently fed from the lateral stages or throttled back early in the ascent to conserve propellant for the second stage burn. The use of existing Proton tankage tooling for the stages and the Kuznetsov engines would allow a high-performance vehicle to be developed at minimum cost. However Chelomei was out of favor, Kuznetsov was discredited after the N1 fiasco, and Glushko was ascendant. The proposal stood no chance. Glushko's Zenit launch vehicle became the accepted solution.
The two variants had the following characteristics:
LEO Payload: 30,000 kg (66,000 lb). to: 200 km Orbit. at: 51.60 degrees. Payload: 3,500 kg (7,700 lb). to a: geosynchronous orbit trajectory. Liftoff Thrust: 11,300.000 kN (2,540,300 lbf). Total Mass: 1,000,000 kg (2,200,000 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 62.54 m (205.18 ft). Span: 7.40 m (24.20 ft). UR-530.
Design for an upgraded Proton, replacing the first stage with a cluster of six modular stages derived from the UR-100N first stage. Detail design to the draft project stage was undertaken in 1976-1977 but the much larger and more expensive Energia/Buran system was selected for development instead. The UR-530 was designed to place 36 metric tons into low earth orbit or boost large payloads to geostationary orbit, Mars, and Venus. It was also designed for launch of Chelomei's LKS manned spaceplane (30 metric tons into a 97 degree, 200 km sun synchronous orbit). Using existing components, Chelomei showed he could develop a launch system with the same performance as Energia/Buran, but using already-developed storable propulsion technologies. The UR-100N first stages, like the ICBM, would be sealed, certified units, requiring no on-pad processing. The second stage would be a version of the existing Proton second stage. LEO Payload: 36,000 kg (79,000 lb). to: 200 km Orbit. at: 51.60 degrees. Payload: 30,000 kg (66,000 lb). to a: 97 degree, 200 km sun-synchronous orbit trajectory. Total Mass: 1,200,000 kg (2,600,000 lb). Core Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft). Total Length: 56.00 m (183.00 ft). Span: 7.50 m (24.60 ft). Proton Chronology 1956 September 30 - First official plan for future Soviet spaceflight Spacecraft: Sputnik 3, Vostok, Zenit-2. This set forth the following objectives: orbiting of satellites of 1.8 to 2.5 tonnes mass by 1958; one week flight of a manned spacecraft by 1964; unmanned reconnaissance satellite by 1970; rocket capable of 12 tonne escape velocity payload by 1970; rocket with 100 tonne low earth orbit payload to be developed, capable of placing 2 to 3 men on the moon (no date set). 1961 During the Year - Initial UR-500 studies for the GR-2 requirement The initial design consisted simply of 4 two-stage UR-200 rockets lashed together, the first and second stages working in parallel in clusters. A third stage would be modified from the UR-200 second stage. 1961 August 15 - Chelomei begins UR-500 Proton design studies. At first the launch vehicle was simply to consist of 4 two-stage UR-200 rockets lashed together, the first and second stages working in parallel in clusters. A third stage would be modified from the UR-200 second stage. However study of this configuration, which included manufacturing of a dynamic test article, indicated that the payload capacity could not meet the military’s requirements. 1961 November - Preliminary design work by Chelomei on UR-500 (Proton) rocket. OKB-52 began to collaborate with V P Glushko’s OKB-456 in developing an appropriate engine. Glushko had completed a storable liquid engine design of 150 tonnes for use in Korolev’s N1. However Korolev refused to accept this design, due to his refusal to use toxic propellants in his rockets and his belief that such propellants could never deliver the required specific impulse. 1961 November 15 - Development of RD-253 engine begun. OKB-52 began to collaborate with V P Glushko’s OKB-456 in developing a high thrust storable propellant engine for the UR-500 Proton launch vehicle. Glushko had completed a storable liquid engine design of 150 tonnes for use in Korolev’s N1. However Korolev refused to accept this design, due to his categorical refusal to use toxic propellants in his rockets and his belief that such propellants could never deliver the required specific impulse. Korolev insisted on development of an oxygen-kerosene engine; Glushko categorically refused to do so. As a result, the two leading Soviet rocket designers irrevocably split. Korolev had to turn for development of his N1 engines to the aviation engine design OKB of N D Kuznetsov. 1962 January - Proton design selected This 'polyblock' design was chosen for the Proton launch vehicle, following studies that indicated improved wind loads and bending moment characteristics compared to the monoblock design. 1962 During the Year - GR-2 (Global Rocket 2) requirement. The GR-2 was to be a kind of enormous multiple-warhead FOBS (fractional orbit bombing system). Competitors included Korolev's N-11GR; Chelomei's UR-500; and Yangel's R-56 1962 January 15 - Proton configuration selected. The 'polyblock' design was chosen as most advantageous, following studies that indicated improved wind loads and bending moment characteristics compared to the conventional 'monoblock' design. During February 1962 - Pitsunda Conference - Decision to start design of UR-500 and N1 lunar boosters The Soviet leadership attends a secret exhibition of Soviet rocket technology in a sporting hall at Pitsunda, on the Black Sea. The Chief Designers offer competing designs. It is decided that the R-16, R-9, UR-200, UR-500, and N1 will go forward. Yangel's R-56 is rejected. Additional Details: Pitsunda Conference - Decision to start design of UR-500 and N1 lunar boosters. 1962 April 24 - Approval to proceed with the UR-500 (8K82) was provided in a Central Committee decree Spacecraft: LK-1. Council of Soviet Ministers (SM) Decree 'On start of work on the UR-500 missile and carrier-rocket' was issued. The rocket was to be built initially for the GR-2 requirement - a heavy rocket that could be used to launch large military payloads into space as well as act as a ballistic missile for multiple nuclear warheads up to 100 MT in yield. The decree ordered development of this powerful new rocket to be completed within three years. This was a difficult task, considering the factory and launch facilities that would have to be built to allow testing of the rocket to begin. The draft project UR-500 was completed in 1963. 1962 May - Advanced project for the Proton UR-500 completed The initial design featured four ungimballed Glushko engines mounted below the core, with four steerable Kosberg engines on the lateral tanks. The second stage of the UR-500 was a larger-diameter variant of the first stage of the UR-200, with the engines gimballed for directional control. The third stage used the UR-200’s fixed engine with a four-nozzled steering engine. In order to meet the constant diameter requirement the third stage used toroidal propellant tanks. 1962 May 15 - UR-500 advanced project published. 1963 June - Tests of clustered Proton engines begun Glushko conducted tests of the new engine from 1961 to 1963, followed by tests of the clustered engine assembly from June 1963 to January 1965. Through use of a regenerative fuel pump cycle Glushko was able to improve the thrust of the engine by 12.5%. It was therefore decided to use only the large Glushko engine in the first stage. The first layout had one engine at the base of the core and 4 to 8 fuel tanks with peripheral engines. Now the centre engine was abandoned and the ‘clean’ oxidiser tank core was surrounded by six fuel tank/engine assemblies. This had the advantage of reducing the length of the stage while increasing the dry weight fraction. 1963 June 15 - First tests of RD-253 engine cluster for Proton. Ground tests of the clustered engine assembly ran from June 1963 to January 1965. 1964 July 19 - Korolev obtains preliminary approval for a single-launch, lunar orbit rendezvous, manned landing. Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-LOK, LK, L3-1963, LK-1. Work on the original N1-L3 had begun in 1963. This had been preceded by two years of working on a draft project for the LK lunar lander and its propulsion system. But there was no money for full scale development -- no code name from Gosplan against which to charge such work. It was annoying that Chelomei, Glushko, and Yangel were wasting resources on alternate designs at the same time. Additional Details: Korolev obtains preliminary approval for a single-launch, lunar orbit rendezvous, manned landing.. 1964 August 1 - Full scale development of Soviet manned lunar flyby and landing projects authorised. Spacecraft: LK-1, Soyuz 7K-LOK, LK, Luna Ye-8, Soyuz A. Flight: Soyuz A-1, Soyuz A-2, Soyuz A-3, Soyuz A-4. Central Committee of the Communist Party and Council of Soviet Ministers Decree 655-268 'On Work on the Exploration of the Moon and Mastery of Space--piloted LK-1 circumlunar and L3 lunar landing projects and the Ye-6M lunar lander' was issued. Chelomei was to develop the three-stage UR-500K booster and LK-1 spacecraft for the manned lunar flyby. Korolev was to develop the totally different N1 booster and L3 spacecraft complex for the manned lunar landing. First launch of the N1 was to be by the first quarter 1966, with manned lunar landings in 1967 to 1968. Reprioritization led to work being stopped on Korolev's Zvezda 6-man orbiting weapons platform by mid-1965, after a huge mockup had been built. Korolev felt that if he had the full support of the Communist Party, the military, and industry he could achieve this goal, and this decree ordered such support. The USSR would be first on the moon. But in truth the draft project behind the decree had not solved all of the technical problems, or provided a solution on how to achieve the required payload on either the booster or spacecraft side. New technology features required for success of the scheme included an advanced guidance system in the N1 third stage equipment bay, the enormous fuel tanks in the N1 first stage, and the Lox/LH2 fuel cells needed for the LOK lunar orbiter. But the real technical problem with the N1-L3 design was the total lack of any weight growth reserve. Even thought the systems had not even been developed yet, engineers were fighting over tens of grams in their weight allocations, let alone the kilograms normally at issue. Development of Korolev's Soyuz A-B-V, a competing circumlunar project, was evidently still authorised, although it duplicated Chelomei's LK-1. 1964 August 15 - Chief Designers review of Voskhod at OKB-1 Spacecraft: Voskhod, LK-1. Flight: Voskhod 1. All concerned designers, bureaux, and institutes certify the reliability of the systems of the spacecraft and launch vehicle. The second phase of trials of the soft landing system have been successful. Of 10 drops, 9 landed with vertical velocity under 7.5 m/s, and of those, 6 landed with a speed of only 0.0 to 1.5 m/s. There are still concerns about how the system will function in soft soils or adverse weather conditions. Nevertheless the decision is taken to ship the spacecraft to the cosmodrome for final preparations between 18 and 25 August. It is likely that the manned flight cannot occur until the end of September. Later in the day Kamanin is visited by Sergei Nikitovich Khrushchev and other experts from Chelomei's design bureau. They brief Kamanin on plans for a manned circumnavigation of the moon using their spacecraft launched by their UR-500 booster by the end of 1967. 1964 September 14 - Voskhod abort system Spacecraft: Voskhod, LK-1. Flight: Voskhod 1. Kamanin reviews the Voskhod abort system with Korolev. Up to T+27 seconds, there is no possibility of saving the crew in the event of a booster failure; from T+27 seconds to T+44 seconds, escape would be difficult, but is possible; and from T+44 seconds to T+501 seconds abort should be possible, with the capsule landing on Soviet territory. Afterwards, Korolev speaks with Kamanin secretly and privately. Korolev reveals that he has discussed a greater VVS role in space with Marshal Krylov, but that Krylov is adamantly opposed to the VVS assuming such a mission. Korolev is seeking a resolution from the Communist Party that will authorise him to develop a manned lunar flyby and landing system using his N1 booster. He believes that Chelomei's UR-500 booster will not have sufficient payload to mount a manned flyby - a docking in low earth orbit will be required. But Chelomei has rejected the use of docking, and is even designing his UR-700 to allow a lunar landing without the use of docking. Finally Korolev gets to the purpose of the secret meeting. He wants Feoktistov to be aboard Voskhod 1, despite the opinion of Kamanin and the physicians. Kamanin reiterates that the most qualified crew would be Komarov, Volynov, and Lazarev; and if he gives in on Feoktistov, then Komarov, Feoktistov, Lazarev. But Korolev is opposed to Lazarev, and insists that the crew should be Komarov, Feoktistov, and Yegorov. From Kamanin's point of view this is flying a space mission with two invalids aboard. Lazarev is a qualified and fit flight surgeon, a qualified pilot as well as a physician with 15 years of research experience in aviation medicine. Korolev is adamant that the two passengers should be civilian, not military. No agreement is possible. 1964 October 12 - Almaz project starts Spacecraft: Almaz APOS, Soyuz R. The day before the overthrow of his patron, Chelomei obtained permission to begin development of a larger military space station, the Almaz. This 20 tonne station would take three cosmonauts to orbit in a single launch of his UR-500K Proton rocket. Therefore there were now two competing projects for the same mission - Almaz and Soyuz-R. First flight of the Almaz, with a one year operational period, was set for 1968. 1964 October 13 - Khrushchev ousted from power. Spacecraft: Kosmoplan, OGCh, IS-A, US-P, US-A, LK-1. Brezhnev faction assumes control of Politubro. Brezhnev was adverse to all projects Khrushchev had supported. These included those of Chelomei and his OKB-52. 1964 October 28 - Lunar project orders issued to industry. Spacecraft: LK-1, Soyuz 7K-LOK, LK, Luna Ye-8. Military-Industrial Commission (VPK) Decree 'On assignment of lunar programs to OKB-52 and OKB-1' was issued. 1964 November 11 - Development of the manned circumlunar spacecraft LK-1 authorised 1965 July 16 - 11:16 GMT - Baikonur LC81/23. UR-500 107207-01 (207) Proton 1 Mass: 8,300 kg (18,200 lb). Spacecraft: N-4 . Agency: MOM. Perigee: 181 km (112 mi). Apogee: 578 km (359 mi). Inclination: 63.40 deg. Period: 92.20 min. The first launch of the Proton launch vehicle was not without problems. A leak in the oxidiser pipeline resulted in nitrogen tetroxide spilling on electrical wires. The question was: proceed with the launch or abort? Chelomei decided to go ahead, and on 16 July 1965 the first UR-500 successfully launched the Proton 1 satellite. In the first hours after launch specialists from OKB-52 could only receive signals in the first hours that indicated the satellite was ‘alive’. However it later functioned normally and provided physics data on ultra-high-energy cosmic particles for 45 days. At the first launch the rocket was called ‘Gerkules’ (other sources say ‘Atlantis’), as indicated by the large symbol on the second stage skin. This name was however was not taken up. 1965 September 8 - Development of four stage version of the Proton proposed. The design was proposed by Korolev as an alternate to Chelomei's LK-1 circumlunar mission. It combined the Proton 8K82K booster for the LK-1 with the N1 lunar Block D stage to boost a stripped-down Soyuz 7K-L1 spacecraft around the moon. 1965 October 25 - L1 manned circumlunar mission taken from Chelomei, given to Korolev. Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1, Soyuz 7K-OK, LK-1. Central Committee of the Communist Party and Council of Soviet Ministers Decree 'On the Concentration of Forces of Industrial Design Organisations for the Creation of Rocket-Space Complex Means for Circling the Moon--work on the UR-500K-L1 program' was issued. As a result of a presentation to the Military Industrial Commission, Afanasyev backed Korolev in wresting control of the manned circumlunar project from Chelomei. The Chelomei LK-1 circumlunar spacecraft was cancelled. In its place, Korolev would use a derivative of the Soyuz 7K-OK, the 7K-L1, launched by Chelomei’s UR-500K, but with a Block D translunar injection stage from the N1. He envisioned launch of the unmanned 7K-L1 into low earth orbit, followed by launch and docking of a 7K-OK with the 7K-L1. The crew would then transfer to the L1, which would then be boosted toward the moon. This was the original reason for the development of the 7K-OK. 1965 November 2 - 12:28 GMT - Baikonur LC81/23. UR-500 209 Proton 2 Mass: 8,300 kg (18,200 lb). Spacecraft: N-4 . Agency: MOM. Perigee: 189 km (117 mi). Apogee: 608 km (377 mi). Inclination: 63.50 deg. Period: 92.50 min. High energy physics laboratory. Investigation of ultra-high-energy cosmic particles. 1965 November 13 - Industrial orders to cancel LK-1 spacecraft and implement L1. Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1, LK-1. Ministry of General Machine Building (MOM) Decree 'On work on the UR-500K-L1 program' was issued. 1966 March 24 - 21:00 GMT - Baikonur LC81/23. UR-500 211 FAILURE: Second stage malfunction. N-4 s/n 3 Mass: 8,300 kg (18,200 lb). Spacecraft: N-4. Agency: RVSN. 1966 April 10 - Proton 8K82K Cosmonaut training for lunar flights announced Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. Leonov announces that cosmonauts are in training for lunar missions. 1966 April 27 - Soyuz L1 full scale development, LK-1 cancellation approved. Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1, LK-1. Decree 10 'On approving the work plan to build the p8loted spacecraft 7K-L1 -- approving the plan for for the UR-500K-L1 and terminating the UR-500K-LK-1' was issued. 1966 July 6 - 12:57 GMT - Baikonur LC81/23. UR-500 212 Proton 3 Mass: 8,300 kg (18,200 lb). Spacecraft: N-4 . Agency: MOM. Perigee: 185 km (114 mi). Apogee: 594 km (369 mi). Inclination: 63.50 deg. Period: 92.30 min. Space station 'Proton 3'. Investigation of ultra high energy cosmic particles 1966 September 2 - Proton 8K82K Lunar flight cosmonauts assignments. Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. In the period 1966 to 1968 there were five simultaneous Soviet manned space projects (Soyuz 7K-OK orbital; Soyuz 7K-L1 circumlunar; Soyuz VI military; L3 manned lunar landing; Almaz space station). Cosmonaut assignments were in constant flux, resulting in many claims in later years that 'I was being trained for the first moon flight'. Additional Details: Lunar flight cosmonauts assignments.. 1966 October 4 - Dummy Proton/Block D mounted on pad. Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. A dummy 8K82K/Block D rocket was mounted at the launch site. The dummy was loaded with imitation propellants (kerosene as fuel and water/ethyl alcohol as oxidiser). The nitrogen tetroxide oxidiser had to be kept above -11 degrees C, and it was originally planned for a thermostatically-controlled electrical heating of the tank walls to achieve this. It was ultimately decided that the risk of explosion of such a system was too great, and the system was abandoned. 1966 November 1 - Delays in Soviet manned lunar programs addressed. Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1, Soyuz 7K-LOK, LK. Decree 'On lag of work on the N1-L3 and UR-500K-L1 programs' was issued. 1966 November 21 - First Proton/Soyuz L1 begins assembly. Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. The first flight rocket (serial number 22701) began assembly on 21 November 1966, with mechanical assembly completed by 29 November. Electrical connections and tests were completed by 4 December 1966. Due to New Year’s holidays work did not resume until 28 January 1967. By 28 February the fully assembled booster / spacecraft unit was completed in the MIK, including the 7K-L1P boilerplate spacecraft. 1966 December 24 - First session of State Commission for the L1 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-OK, Soyuz 7K-L1. Flight: Soyuz 7K-L1 mission 1, Soyuz 7K-L1 mission 2, Soyuz 7K-L1 mission 3. Tyulin chairs the meeting. Mishin, Chelomei and Barmin brief the status of the spacecraft, booster, and launch site. There is much to be done in order to fly cosmonauts around the moon by 7 November 1967 - the 50th anniversary of the October Revolution. The first manned flight around the moon is planned for 26 June 1967. To achieve this, four flights of the L1 without a crew have to be completed first. The UR-500K booster should be capable of launching the L1 on a direct flight around the Moon and back to the earth. But since the UR-500K has not yet flown, and its 19-tonne low earth payload has not bee verified, Mishin plans to follow the podsadka scenario. The UR-500K will place in low earth orbit an L1 without a crew, and then a Soyuz booster will place a manned Soyuz 7K-OK Soyuz in orbit. The Soyuz crew will rendezvous and dock with the L1, and the crew for the circumlunar mission will spacewalk through open space from the 7K-OK into the L1. The spacecraft will then separate. The 7K-OK returns to earth, while the L1 is boosted on a circumlunar trajectory. After 4 to 6 launches of the UR-500K to verify its reliability and payload margins, it should be possible to make the direct flight to the moon on subsequent versions. For the time being it is necessary to develop both versions in parallel. 1967 January - Proton 8K82K First L-1 Zond spacecraft mated to Proton Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. Fit tests at Tyuratam. Not launched (Interavia SD). 1967 February 4 - UR-500K/L1 manned circumlunar design authorised. Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. Central Committee of the Communist Party and Council of Soviet Ministers Decree 115-46 'On the Progress of the Work on the Development of the UR500K-L1 --confirmation of schedule for piloted lunar missions' was issued. 1967 March 10 - 11:30 GMT - Baikonur LC81/23. LV Model: Proton-K/D . UR-500K/Blok D N10722701 Cosmos 146 Mass: 5,017 kg (11,060 lb). Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. Agency: MOM. Perigee: 178 km (110 mi). Apogee: 312 km (193 mi). Inclination: 51.50 deg. Period: 89.30 min. Protoype Soyuz 7K-L1P launched by Proton into planned highly elliptical earth orbit. The first flight four-stage Proton rocket began assembly on 21 November 1966, with mechanical assembly completed by 29 November. Electrical connections and tests were completed by 4 December 1966. Due to New Year’s holidays work did not resume until 28 January 1967. By 28 February the fully assembled booster / spacecraft unit was completed in the MIK, including the 7K-L1P boilerplate spacecraft. The launch tower was added on 2 March 1967 and the system was declared ready for launch. A serious potential problem during preparations was the discovery that fuel gases could lead to pump cavitation at the turbine exits. Tests on the ground showed that the problem was not the fuel itself, but in the monitoring equipment. The launch vehicle and Block D stage functioned correctly and put the spacecraft into a translunar trajectory. The spacecraft was not aimed at the moon, did not have a heat shield for reentry, and no recovery was planned or attempted. A successful launch that created false confidence just before the string of failures that would follow. 1967 March 14 - Lunar flyby/landing program plan reviewed Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1, Soyuz 7K-LOK, Soyuz 7K-L1A, LK. UR-500K/L1 project will consist of three phases. Phase I will be dedicated to development of the Block D translunar stage, using prototype, incomplete L1 spacecraft. Phase II will conduct lunar flybys with complete but unmanned L1 spacecraft. Phase III will fly Soviet cosmonauts around the moon. The N1/L3 project will consist of five phases. Phase I will use the N1 and the 7K-L1A spacecraft. This will be used primarily to test out the Block G translunar and Block D lunar orbit insertion stages, but will also conduct lunar flybys, returning photographs of the lunar surface to the earth. Phase II will use N1's to fly L3 spacecraft with an unpiloted LOK lunar orbiter and an unpiloted LK lunar lander. Phase III, the first manned missions, will use N1's to fly L3 spacecraft with a piloted LOK lunar orbiter and an unpiloted LK lunar lander. Phase IV will fly a piloted LOK lunar orbiter and an unpiloted LK lunar lander, that will be landed on the lunar surface. In Phase V N1-L3 number 10L is to launch the first manned landing on the moon in September 1968. N1-L3 numbers 11L and 12L were back-ups, in the event any of the planned earlier missions failed. Additional Details: Lunar flyby/landing program plan reviewed. 1967 April 8 - 09:00 GMT - Baikonur LC81/23. Proton-K/D 228-01 FAILURE: Block D ullage rocket failure; no restart. Cosmos 154 Mass: 5,020 kg (11,060 lb). Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. Agency: RVSN. Perigee: 187 km (116 mi). Apogee: 203 km (126 mi). Inclination: 51.50 deg. Period: 88.30 min. Protoype Soyuz 7K-L1 manned circumlunar spacecraft. There are high winds for the L1 launch, 15-17 m/s. The official limit is 20 m/s, but Chelomei wants to scrub the launch if winds go over 15 m/s. Nevertheless the launch proceeds in 17-18 m/s winds and the L1 reached earth orbit. However the Block D translunar injection stage failed to fire (ullage rockets, which had to fire to settle propellants in tanks before main engine fired, were jettisoned prematurely). The failure is blamed on Mishin and has Tsybin seething in anger. Mishin is disorganised and has made many mistakes. Spacecraft burned up two days later when orbit decayed. Later in the day comes the news the RTS has to be replaced on one of the Soyuz 1/2 spacecraft. This will have a 3 to 4 day schedule impact, and push the launch back to 15-20 April. The crews arrive the same day for the upcoming Soyuz launch. 1967 September 27 - 22:11 GMT - Baikonur LC81/23. Proton-K/D 229-01 FAILURE: First stage -1 RD-253 failed, resulting at T+67 sec in deviation from flight path. Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 4L Mass: 5,390 kg (11,880 lb). Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. Agency: RVSN. First attempted circumlunar flight. The UR-500K failed, crashing 50 to 60 km from the launch pad. The L1 radio beacon was detected 65 km north of the Baikonur aerodrome by an Il-14 search aircraft. An Mi-6 helicopter recovered the capsule and had it back to the cosmodrome by 13:30. Mishin's record: of seven launches of the Soyuz and L1, only one has been successful. Film of the launch shows that one engine of the first stage failed. Mishin still wants to launch the next L1 by 28 October. The other chief designers oppose the move. Barmin says at least five months are needed to diagnose the cause of the failures and makes fixes to ensure they don't happen again. Nevertheless the leadership sides with Mishin, and Barmin is ordered to prepare the left Proton pad for a launch within 30 to 40 days. 1967 October 7 - Soviet of Chief Designers Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-OK, Soyuz 7K-L1. In Moscow, Mishin heads a meeting of all the Chief Designers (including Chelomei, Mishin, and Glushko). Glushko says that the last UR-500K failure was due to errors made during manufacture of an engine in 1965 at Factory 19 at Perm. Ustinov notes that the failure has cost the state 100 million roubles and has delayed the program two to three months. He brutally attacks Dementiev, Minister of Aviation Industry, for the poor work of his factories on the space program. Another issue is continued delays in the Salyut computer for the L1. Ustinov orders an alternate technical solution to be developed in parallel with the digital computer development. The next Soyuz flight is set for the end of December, the next L1 attempt for 21-22 November. 1967 November 17 - UR-500 launch vehicle version for military payloads authorised. Central Committee of the Communist Party and Council of Soviet Ministers Decree 1070-363 'On approval of work on the UR-500 launch vehicle' was issued. 1967 November 21 - Cause of Proton failure in last launch. Glushko at Baikonur. He reports the Perm factory is under close supervision - the engine that failed on the last launch was found to have resin in the main fuel line. 1967 November 22 - 19:07 GMT - Baikonur LC81/24. Proton-K/D 230-01 FAILURE: Second stage - 1 x RD-0210 failure, shutoff of stage 4 seconds after ignition. Launcher crashed downrange. Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 5L Mass: 5,390 kg (11,880 lb). Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. Agency: RVSN. The launch takes place at 00:07 local time (22:07 on 22 November Moscow time). Glushko, Chelomei, and Kamanin observe the launch from an observation point in -5 deg C weather. Three to four seconds after second stage ignition, the SAS pulls the spacecraft away from the booster. Telemetry shows that engine number 4 of stage 2 never ignited, and after 3.9 seconds the remaining three engines were shut dwon by the SBN (Booster Safety System) and the SAS abort tower fired. The capsule's radio beacon was detected and the spacecraft was found 80 km southwest of Dzhezkazgan, 285 km down range. The Proton problems are maddening. Over 100 rocket launches have used engines from this factory, with no previous failure. Of ten of the last launches under Mishin's direction (6 Soyuz and 4 L1) only two have went well - an 80% failure rate! Mishin is totally without luck. Kamanin and Leonov take an An-12 to see the L1 at its landing point. Leonov wants to see proof that the cosmonauts would be saved in any conditions. The capsule landed in -17 deg C and 12 m/s winds. The parachute pulled the capsule along the ground for 550 m, and the soft landing rockets fired somewhere above the 1.2 m design height. After safing of the APO self-destruct package, the capsule is lifted to an airfield by a Mi-4. 1968 February 21 - L1 Launch Commission. Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1, Soyuz 7K-OK. The booster failure on the previous launch was found to be due to premature fuel injection during engine start, causing initial chamber temperatures to rise 200 degrees above normal. Glushko and Konopatov both guarantee their engines for the next launch. The next L1 flight will use the 'Kruga' landing predictor. This will predict the landing point to within a 150 x 150 km area two to three hours before re-entry. Landing points on the three previous flights would have been 2000 km from Madagascar and India, Novosibirsk, and the North Pole... Mishin plans the next dual Soyuz flight for 5-10 April. Kamanin protests that the parachute and sea trials of the redesigned capsule are not yet complete. Mishin, as usual, dismisses his concerns. 1968 February 29 - L1 commsision meeting. Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. For this L1 launch Chelomei wants to film separation of the first and second stages of the Proton rocket at 126 seconds into the flight - altitude 41 km, distance downrange 47 km. To do this two An-12 and one Tu-124 with long focal-length cameras will orbit 35 to 40 km from base. The discussion turns to how to recover the L1 if it lands in the ice-bound Aral Sea. The circle of possible landing points has a radius of 500 km from a point west of Karaganda. For political reasons it is not possible to deploy recovery forces to areas of Iran and India that are within this circle. 1968 March 2 - 18:29 GMT - Baikonur LC81/23. Proton-K/D 231-01 Zond 4 Mass: 5,390 kg (11,880 lb). Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1 . Agency: MOM. Perigee: 191 km (118 mi). Apogee: 400,000 km (240,000 mi). Inclination: 51.60 deg. Period: 15,561.71 min. What at first seemed to be a success, very much needed by the L1 program, ended in failure. The Proton booster lifted off in 18 m/s winds, -3 deg C temperatures, and into very low clouds - it disappeared from view at only 150 m altitude. Aircraft at 9, 10, and 11 km altitude reported the cloud deck topped 8300 m, with 1.5 to 2.0 km visibility. The spacecraft was successfully launched into a 330,000 km apogee orbit 180 degrees away from the moon. On reentry, the guidance system failed, and the planned double skip maneuver to bring the descent module to a landing in the Soviet Union was not possible. Ustinov had ordered the self-destruct package to be armed and the capsule blew up 12 km above the Gulf of Guinea. Kamanin disagreed strongly with this decision; the spacecraft could have still been recovered in the secondary area by Soviet naval vessels after a 20 G reentry. The decsion was made to recover the spacecraft in the future whenever possible. 1968 April 22 - 23:01 GMT - Baikonur LC81/24. Proton-K/D 232-01 FAILURE: Second stage shut-off prematurely due to short-circuit in Zond control system. Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 7L Mass: 5,390 kg (11,880 lb). Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. Agency: RVSN. L1 launch attempt, lift-off at 02:00 local time. The spacecraft was to separate at 589 seconds into the flight. Instead at 260 seconds, a short circuit in the malfunction detection system incorrectly indicated a launch vehicle failure. This in turn triggered the SAS abort system. The SAS shut down the good stage and separated the spacecraft from the booster. The capsule landed safely 520 km downrange from the launch site. This was the third such abort, which if nothing else proved the reliability of the SAS - all of the spacecraft landed safely. July 1968 - Proton 8K82K DIA/CIA warn of impending Zond circumlunar flight Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. The information led NASA to decide to send Apollo 8 on a risky lunar orbital mission at the end of December 1968. Interestingly enough the CIA warning to NASA came within days of the L1 State Commission's meeting and decision to press for a November circumlunar flight. 1968 July 15 - Baikonur LC81/23. L1 pad explosion. Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. During launch preparations with the fuelled Proton / L1, there was an explosion, killing three technicians. Their death alone indicates the area around the pad was unsafe at the time. The Block D oxidiser tank of the L1 exploded - the first such failure in 30 uses. The rocket and spacecraft were relatively undamaged. The third stage of the Proton had some external damage due to exposure to the Block D's fuel, but it can be cleaned. The real question is how to remove the L1 spacecraft on the pad. A helicopter could hoist the spacecraft away, but the available Mi-6 or V-10 helos can lift only 8 to 10 tonnes, and the L1 weighs 14 tonnes. A V-10 crew is sent to investigate the possibilities anyway. Some engineers suggest just firing the BPO abort tower and lifting the capsule away from the stack! Emergency political and military meetings are held at the cosmodrome to discuss the impending invasion of Czechoslovakia. 1968 July 21 - Baikonur -. Proton 8K82K Zond 7K-L1 s/n 8L Mass: 5,140 kg (11,330 lb). Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. Block D stage exploded on pad, killing three people. Booster and 7K-L1 spacecraft were still intact however. 1968 September 14 - 21:42 GMT - Baikonur LC81/23. Proton-K/D 234-01 Zond 5 Mass: 5,390 kg (11,880 lb). Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1 . Agency: MOM. Perigee: 200 km (120 mi). Apogee: 385,000 km (239,000 mi). Inclination: 51.50 deg. Period: 14,722.06 min. First successful circumlunar flight with recovery. Test flight of manned spacecraft; launched from an earth parking orbit to make a lunar flyby and return to earth. On September 18, 1968, the spacecraft flew around the moon at an altitude of 1950 km. High quality photographs of the earth were taken at a distance of 90,000 km. A biological payload of turtles, wine flies, meal worms, plants, seeds, bacteria, and other living matter was included in the flight. Before re-entry the gyroscopic platform went off line due to ground operator failure. However this time the self destruct command was not given. After a ballistic 20G re-entry the capsule splashed down in the Indian Ocean at 32:63 S, 65:55 E on September 21, 1968 16:08 GMT. Soviet naval vessels were 100 km from the landing location and recovered the spacecraft the next day, shipping it via Bombay back to Soviet Union. Additional Details: Zond 5. 1968 November 10 - 19:11 GMT - Baikonur LC81/23. Proton-K/D 235-01 Zond 6 Mass: 5,375 kg (11,849 lb). Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1 . Agency: MOM. Perigee: 200 km (120 mi). Apogee: 400,000 km (240,000 mi). Inclination: 51.50 deg. Period: 15,562.22 min. Test flight of manned circumlunar spacecraft. Successfully launched towards the moon with a scientific payload including cosmic-ray and micrometeoroid detectors, photography equipment, and a biological specimens. A midcourse correction on 12 November resulted in a loop around the moon at an altitude of 2,420 km on 14 November. Zond 6 took spectacular photos of the moon’s limb with the earth in the background. Photographs were also taken of the lunar near and far side with panchromatic film from distances of approximately 11,000 km and 3300 km. Each photo was 12.70 by 17.78 cm. Some of the views allowed for stereo pictures. On the return leg a gasket failed, leading to cabin depressurisation, which would have been fatal to a human crew. The 7K-L1 then made the first successful double skip trajectory, dipping into the earth's atmosphere over Antarctica, slowing from 11 km/sec to suborbital velocity, then skipping back out into space before making a final re-entry onto Soviet territory. The landing point was only 16 km from the pad from which it had been launched toward the moon. After the re-entry the main parachute ejected prematurely, ripping the main canopy, leading to the capsule being destroyed on impact with the ground. One negative was recovered from the camera container and a small victory obtained over the Americans. But the criteria for a manned flight had obviously not been met and Mishin's only hope to beet the Americans was a failure or delay in the Apollo 8 flight set for December. The next Zond test was set for January. Additional Details: Zond 6. 1968 November 16 - 11:40 GMT - Baikonur LC81/24. Proton-K 236-01 Proton 4 Mass: 16,000 kg (35,000 lb). Spacecraft: N-6 . Agency: MOM. Perigee: 248 km (154 mi). Apogee: 477 km (296 mi). Inclination: 51.60 deg. Period: 91.80 min. First launch of the Proton three-stage variant. The satellite studied the nature of high and ultra-high energy cosmic rays and their interaction with atomic nuclei. Scientific payload 12,500 kg; operated for 100 days in orbit. 1968 December 30 - Meeting of the VPK Military-Industrial Commission to discuss how to beat the Americans to the lunar landing Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1, Luna Ye-8-5, LK-1. Ustinov called the meeting to order. Mishin was 'sick' again -- Okhapkin represented TsKBEM and gave a summary of the programme to that date:
Keldysh proposed that further work on the L1 be abandoned, and Proton boosters instead be used to launch the Ye-8-5 lunar soil return robot spacecraft being developed by Babakin. Babakin had been accelerating this programme since the beginning of 1968 with the support of Keldysh, even though it would only return around 100 g of lunar soil, versus the tens of kilograms the Apollo manned flights would return. However it now offered an interesting possibility - he proposed obtaining lunar soil and returning it to earth before an American manned landing. The government's organs of mass communication would say that the Soviet Union's lunar program only consisted of robot probes, emphasising that his was much safer and that Russia would never risk it's citizen's lives for mere political sensation. Additional Details: Meeting of the VPK Military-Industrial Commission to discuss how to beat the Americans to the lunar landing. 1969 January 20 - 04:14 GMT - Baikonur LC81/23. Proton-K/D 237-01 FAILURE: Second stage - One RD-0210 engine fails at T+510 sec, resulting in flight path deviation, automatic shutoff of launch vehicle. Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 13L Mass: 5,390 kg (11,880 lb). Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-L1. Agency: RVSN. Launch failure - but the abort system again functioned perfectly, taking the capsule to a safe landing (in Mongolia!). At 501 seconds into the flight one of the four engines of the second stage shut down, and remained shut down for 25 seconds. The ever-reliable SAS abort system detected the failure, and separated the capsule from the failed booster. Yet again a successful capsule recovery after a booster failure. Additional Details: Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 13L. 1969 February 4 - UR-500K failure state commission Spacecraft: Luna Ye-8. At Area 81 a State Commission is held on failures of the UR-500K booster. A D Konopatov describes the analysis of the stage 2 and 3 failures on the 20 January launch attempt. The number 4 engine of stage 2 shut down 25 seconds into its burn due to high temperatures detected in the turbopump. The same thing occurred on the third stage. The couldn't pin down the source of the problem. Engines of this type had worked correctly 700 times on earlier flights. Despite the cause of the failure not being identified, approval is given at 14:30 for the launch of the Ye-8 to proceed. Babakin confirms the spacecraft is ready. 1969 February 19 - 06:48 GMT - Baikonur LC81/24. Proton-K/D 239-01 FAILURE: First-stage engine failure caused the rocket to crash 15 km from the pad. Ye-8 s/n 201 + Lunokhod s/n 201 - first stage malfunction Mass: 5,600 kg (12,300 lb). Spacecraft: Luna Ye-8. Agency: RVSN. Attempted launch of a Ye-8 with a Lunokhod lunar rover. Evidently coordinate in some way with the N1 launch two days later. A first-stage booster engine failure causes the rocket to crash 15 km from the pad after a lift-off at 09:48 local time. Kamanin meanwhile has the Hong Kong flu. 1969 March 27 - 10:40 GMT - Baikonur LC81/23. Proton-K/D 240-01 FAILURE: T+51s payload shroud failed. Second stage continued but third stage failed to ignite. M-69 s/n 521 Spacecraft: Mars M-69. Agency: RVSN. Mars probe intended to enter Martian |
