R-12 Credit - © Mark Wade Media Gallery

The R-12 was the first operationally effective intermediate range ballistic missile, the first Soviet missile deployed with a thermonuclear warhead, and the first mass-produced missile in history. 2,300 of the storable propellant rockets were built and deployed in both mobile and silo-based versions for thirty years, from March 1959 to June 1989. It was a primary element in the Soviet deterrent threatening Western Europe and China throughout the Cold War. Deployment of R-12's to Cuba in 1962 precipitated the Cuba Missile Crisis.

Development of the R-12 was begun in 1950 under Theme N-2 (long range storable propellant missiles). D D Sevruk at OKB-3 of NII-88 conducted the first design work. His pre-draft project envisioned a missile of the same diameter as the R-5, but with 50% to 100% more range. Mikhail Yangel completed the project. He proposed the use of toxic but storable liquid propellants. His bosses, Mishin and Korolev, vehemently opposed this approach. They believed military rockets would be safer using cryogenic liquid oxygen and kerosene propellants. Nevertheless by 13 February 1953 Yangel had completed the development project plan for the missile, with technology tests being conducted at NII-88. Missile tsar Ustinov supported Yangel's approach, and it seemed the only way for the missile to be developed was to move the responsibility away from Korolev.

On 9 May 1951 a resolution had been issued creating an R-1 production facility at Factory 586 at Dnepropetrovsk in the Ukraine, with Vasiliy Budnik as its Chief Constructor. Ukrainian-born Communist Party leader Leonid Brezhnev was promoting the missile production factory and proposed to give Yangel a new design bureau on its premises. This would further the economic development of Ukraine and encourage the development of missiles using storable propellants. The decision was made to move Yangel and the R-12 there as well. A decree issued on 13 December 1953 ordered Factory 586 at Dnepropetrovsk to complete the R-12 design. On 9 July 1954 Yangel was named head of the facility and specifically assigned by Defence Minister Smirnov to develop storable propellant rockets for the army and navy. Development of the R-12 intermediate range ballistic missile was approved on 13 August 1955. The government resolution assigned the missile the industrial index 8K63 and scheduled trials for April 1957.

The draft project was completed in October 1955. A key issue during design was whether the missile could reach the 2,000 km specified range with the maximum allowable payload mass using the planned RD-211 engines - the thrust was simply too low. Engine designer Glushko had designed the RD-211 with four combustion chamber / nozzle assemblies. Each was double the thrust of the V-2-based RD-100 engine, but all four were fed by common turbopumps. Initial tests of the new-design cylindrical combustion chamber showed good results, and versions of this engine were being simultaneously developed for the R-7 ICBM (the RD-107, using liquid oxygen/kerosene propellants) and the Buran intercontinental cruise missile booster (RD-212, using nitric acid/kersosene).

The RD-212 was underpowered for the Buran application, so the design was abandoned and development undertaken of the RD-213 with 22% more thrust. A similar decision was taken in regard to the RD-211 for the R-12, which resulted in the RD-214. Development of the RD-214 began in 1955, and trials started in 1957. These included experimental tests to thoroughly ring out the motor, including on/off operations, off-stand component tests, and demonstrations of pulsed engine operation. Following this first series, necessary modifications were made, and the second test stand series was completely successful. In March 1957 a complete four-chamber prototype engine was installed in the R-12 'iron bird' at Zagorsk for integrated firings with the missile.

Yangel was also committed to providing the R-12 with the Soviet Union's first autonomous inertial navigation system. Korolev's rockets had all used radio-corrected guidance, which could be jammed in wartime. The inertial navigation system planned for the R-12 was tested on R-5M missiles before the R-12 began its flight tests.

For the R-12 Yangel selected the same simple cylindrical 'pencil' configuration as had been used on the R-5M. Korolev, passionately committed to optimum aerodynamics in rockets, favoured the conical designs and 'sharp point' configurations originated by captured German engineers. He declared 'this pencil will not fly'. In defiance of Korolev, the first R-12 test launch was made from Area 21 at Kaputsin Yar on 22 June 1957. 25 R-12's were launched in three phases of test and trials launches through 27 December 1958. The pad-launched version was accepted for military service on 4 March 1959. Khrushchev visited Yangel's Factory 586 in Dnepropetrovsk in July 1959, handed out awards to OKB-586 collectively, and personal awards to Yangel, L V Smirnov, and B S Rudnik.

Between 1956 and 1959 there was an internal controversy as to whether long-range rocket units should be formed within the Red Army, the Long Range AIr Force, or both. This was finally settled on 17 December 1959, when a new branch of the armed services, the RVSN Strategic Rocket Forces, was formed under Marshal Nedelin. The R-12 was to be the first widely-deployed missile for the new service.

Mass production was undertaken beginning in 1958 at three factories in addition to Factory 586: Factory 172 (PMZ Lenin) in Perm, Factory 47 (PO Strela) in Krasnoyarsk, and Aviation Factory 166 (PO Polyot) in Omsk. Omsk and Krasnoyarsk became subsidiaries of OKB-456 in December 1958 and September 1959, and production was stopped there in the early 1960's. Production finally was completed at Perm in 1967, with 2,300 of the missile being built.

Special launches of modified R-12's were made to test subscale versions of the Raketoplan and BOR series of spaceplanes. From 1967 Perm built several special variants for ABM field exercises and testing of ballistic missile countermeasure systems. These included the 8K63E 'List', 8K63K 'Kaktus', 8K63V 'Verba', and 8K63Kr 'Krot'.

Spetsmash began development of the mobile launch system for the missile in 1953. The R-12's launcher was a modification of that already designed for the R-5M. The concept was that the missiles would be stored in a shelter (the 'technical position'). In the vicinity of the shelter were numerous pre-surveyed concrete hard stands, from any of which the missile could be launched. The missiles had a guaranteed seven-year storage life in unfuelled condition. The response time of the missile (from go order to launch) depended on the 'readiness condition'. There were four of these defined for the R-12:

• Readiness condition 4: the missile was stored at the technical position unfuelled, and without the gyro package. Guaranteed life in this condition was seven years, with 205 minutes reaction time from go order to launch.
• Readiness condition 3: the missile was in the technical position with the gyros and warhead installed. Guaranteed life three years, reaction time 140 minutes.
• Readiness condition 2: the missile was installed on the launch pad. The gyro system was installed and brought to readiness, then shut down. Fuel connections were made, but no fuel was pumped into the rocket. The missile could be held for three months in this state, with a 60-minute response time.
• Readiness condition 1: the missile was on the pad as in readiness condition 2, but fuelled with TG-02 kerosene. To launch required only activation of the gyro package and pumping of the corrosive AK-27I oxidizer. In this condition the missile could be held for one month with a 30-minute reaction time.

Compared to earlier missiles the R-12 differed in having the 430 kg inertial guidance system located in the intertank section between the fuel and oxidiser tanks. The oxidiser was AK-27I (27% N2O4 and 73% nitric acid) and the fuel TM-185 kerosene. The TG-02 Samin catalyst for the fuel was a Russian version of the German Tonka-250 formulation (50% Triethylamine / 50% Xylidine). The oxidiser was pressurised by gaseous oxygen, the fuel by air. Following burn-out of the single-stage rocket, explosive bolts separated the warhead and it was ejected pneumatically from the missile. Once launched, the missile had a time of flight of 11.8 minutes. Maximum velocity at burnout was 3530 m/s, and warhead accuracy 6 km in range, 5 km laterally.

In order for the missile to keep stability in transonic and supersonic flight, there were two oxidiser tanks forward. The lower tank was drained first in order to match the shifting centre of pressure as the missile accelerated. This had not been a problem in earlier rockets with liquid oxygen oxidiser, which was 33% less dense. The missile's control system regulated the flow from each tank before and after the missile went through the sound barrier.

Service History

On 15 May 1960 the first R-12 regiments were activated at Slonim, Novogrudok, and Pinsk in Byelorus, Pulnge in Lithuania, Gezgaly in Kazakhstan, and Sovietsk in Kaliningrad. Each regiment consisted of 2 to 3 launch divisions, each division of two batteries with one launcher. Therefore there were 4 to 6 launchers per regiment.

The engines in the first production missiles were found to pulse due to hot catalyst in the turbopumps. The problem was only fixed following a series of controlled tests of the engine and an aggressive quality assurance program for production missiles. The R-12 was first displayed publicly at a Moscow parade in 1961. American intelligence estimated that 2,300 R-12 missiles were built, with peak deployment being 608 silos and missile launchers in 1965. No Russian figures for production or deployment have been declassified.

The R-12 obtained international notoriety during the Cuban missile crisis. Khrushchev and the Soviet leadership decided to deploy three regiments of the 13th Rocket Division with R-12 IRBM's (24 launchers) and two regiments of longer-range R-14's (16 launchers) to the island of Cuba. The missiles would provide a deterrent to US attack on the island. It would also provide the Soviet Union with a missile deterrent force matching the American Thor and Jupiter missiles in Britain, Italy, and Turkey. By the middle of October 1962, 36 R-12's with nuclear warheads were in Cuba. This precipitated the Cuban Missile Crisis, bringing forces of the US and Soviet Union into direct armed confrontation. In the end Khrushchev agreed to withdrawal the missiles from Cuba. In exchange he obtained secret US assurances never to invade Cuba and to withdraw the Thor and Jupiter missiles.

By the mid-1970's a typical R-12 regiment consisted of two fixed base divisions and one mobile division. Each fixed division consisted of 2 batteries, each battery with 2 rockets. A mobile rocket regiment consisted of 5-8 launchers, 11-14 transport vehicles, 6-7 support trucks, and 41-52 fuel transports. During launch operations the control vehicle and the launcher were separated by 175 m.

A missile forces veteran remembers that the R-12 and R-14 were deployed primarily on surface launch pads. While he was in service he visited at least 15 launch sites: Sovietsk, Gvardeisk, and Znamensk in the Kaliningrad enclave; Taurage and Ukmerge in Lituania, Elgava and Dobele in Latvia, and Postavy and Lida in Belorussia. His own regiment in Priekule, Latvia had 6 silo-based R-14's and 3 R-14 on surface pads. Both the R-12 and R-14 used the same SP6 surface launch pad complex.

The R-12 was replaced beginning in 1977 by the SS-20 Pioner solid propellant missile. In 1987 the US and the Soviet Union signed the INF Treaty, eliminating intermediate range nuclear missiles in Europe. Under the treaty 149 remaining R-12 missiles were scrapped. Of these 65 were in military service at the time of the treaty signature and 84 were stored in weapons dumps. The R-12 missiles were withdrawn from service in June 1989 and destroyed in the presence of US inspectors at Lesnaya in Belarus. The final R-12 was destroyed on 23 May 1990. However the R-12 story was not quite over. It was reported in January 1998 that the R-12 design had been sold to Iran and formed the basis of their Shabad 4 IRBM. By 2004 it was said that this had been abandoned, but that R-12 technology had been applied to an improved version of the Shahab 3 IRBM.

R-12 Variants

A train-based R-12 with 'hot reload' capability was designed but never got into development. At the beginning of the 1960's a chemical warhead was developed for the R-12. This used the 'Tuman' cassette-type warhead to disperse the agent over a wide area after re-entry. A silo-based R-12U and a light orbital launch vehicle, the 11K63 Kosmos-2, were developed from the R-12, and are treated in separate entries. The latter used a new second stage to reach orbital velocity.

The R-12 was launched with live nuclear warheads on several occasions. In June 1961, in preparation for the first such test series, an attempt was made to fire an R-12 with a functional nuclear warhead without a fissile core toward the Arctic atomic test ground on Novaya Zemlya from a position east of the city of Vorkut. This launch attempt was aborted when an electrical fault was detected. Rather than risk firing the faulty missile, Yangel and Omsk Factory Head Kolnpayev shipped a new production rocket from Omsk.

The first live warhead tests were on 10/12 or 12/16 September 1961 as part of Operation Roza. Two R-12's propelled thermonuclear warheads with different yields from Vorkut and Salekhard to target areas on Novaya Zemlya. These launches were made by the same batteries that would be deployed to Cuba a year later.

Further end-to-end tests of the R-12 with a live nuclear warhead were made in June-July 1962 as part of Operations K1 and K2. In this case the prime purpose was to evaluate the electromagnetic pulse effect of nuclear explosions in order to design anti-ballistic missile systems, survivable radars, and missile silos. The R-12's were launched toward the prototype ABM site at Sary Shagan.

In October-November 1962 R-12's were used in operations K-3, K-4, and K-5 to explode thermonuclear warheads at altitudes of 300, 150, and 60 km. These high altitude tests were designed to test electromagnetic pulse effects on electronics, especially ABM system radars. They disrupted communications over a wide area for over an hour.

In 1958 the R-12 was selected, together with the R-2 and R-5, as target vehicles for tests of the Dunay-2 ABM system. 11 target flights were undertaken, 3 of them by R-12's. The first R-12 target flight was conducted on 4 March 1961 in a test of the V-1000 ABM missile. After completion of the state trials the Aldan ABM complex was declared operational. The S63U target version of the missile was used again in certification tests in 1976-1977 of the 3(V)350Zh missile.

Manufacturer: Yuzhnoye. Launches: 16. Failures: 1. Success Rate: 93.75%. First Launch Date: 1957-06-22. Last Launch Date: 1969-07-15. Launch data is: incomplete. Apogee: 500 km (310 mi). Liftoff Thrust: 560.000 kN (125,890 lbf). Total Mass: 34,914 kg (76,972 lb). Core Diameter: 1.65 m (5.41 ft). Total Length: 22.26 m (73.03 ft). Span: 1.83 m (6.00 ft). Standard warhead mass: 700 kg (1,540 lb). Maximum range: 1,500 km (900 mi). Number Standard Warheads: 1. Standard warhead yield: 1,000 KT. Standard warhead CEP: 5.16 km (3.20 mi). Boost Propulsion: Storable liquid rocket, Nitric acid/kerosene. Boost engine: RD-214. Guidance: Inertial. Maximum speed: 12,710 kph (7,890 mph). Ceiling: 398,000 m (1,305,000 ft). Total Number Built: 2300.

Universal version of the R-12U, for pad-launch or from the 'Dvina' silo complex.

The original pad-launched versions of the R-12 and R-14 IRBM's had serious operational drawbacks. They couldn't be launched in winds of over 30 m/sec, and they were soft targets. Each truck had to drive several dozen kilometres from the technical point storage area to the hard stand pads, then several hours were needed to erect, fuel, and launch the rocket. During this time they were completely unable to withstand attack by enemy aircraft or missiles. Emplacing the missiles in hardened silos, able to withstand 0.02 Mpc (0.2 kgf/cm2) of overpressure, would allow them to survive a 1-megaton nuclear blast 5 km away.

Khrushchev took pride in the idea that he had originated the launch silo concept in the summer of 1958, but in fact it had been earlier considered for the enormous R-7 ICBM (and rejected for obvious economic reasons). However by 1958 it became apparent that such a concept was well suited to the new, smaller, storable-propellant missiles being developed by Yangel and Chelomei. The plan was for a single hardened launch control centre to control launch of the missiles from several silos. This would also allow salvo launch of missiles simultaneously (as opposed to reloading only one silo). In the case of the R-12, this required development of an R-12U 'universal' version of the missile (for either pad or silo launch), and the launch and command silos. Stand tests with the 'Dvina' silo complex began in March 1959 and construction of the Mayak 'lighthouse' silo at Kapustin Yar began in June 1959. The first launch of a missile from the Mayak complex was made on 31 August 1959, proving the silo-launch concept. The original Mayak design had a 7 m high 'kurgan' embankment formed from the earth of the excavation. This was visible for 10 to 15 km away in the flat steppes of Kapustin Yar, hence the term 'lighthouse'.

Based on results of these tests, a 14 June 1960 a decree authorised work to proceed on development of a silo-based version of the R-12 and its associated facilities. The R-12's 8P763 complex was code-named Dvina and designed by Spetsmash. It consisted of four silos grouped in a 70 x 80 m perimeter. At the centre was the hardened technological block, which housed the command point, the propellants and gases necessary for the missile, an electrical generator and necessary consumables for 30 days of autonomous operation at full launch readiness.

Aside from modifications to make the missile suitable for launch from either a silo or surface pad, the R-12U also had a more sophisticated guidance and control system. This allowed it to be equipped with only a single oxidiser tank, instead of the dual-tank system used for centre-of-gravity reasons on the original R-12.

Flight tests of the R-12U from launch pads were conducted between December 1961 and December 1962. The rocket design was accepted for military service on 12 July 1963. The first test of the R-12U from the Mayak silo was in October 1963. Following a successful test series the Dvina silo design was accepted by the military on 5 January 1964.

The first mobile R-12U regiment became operational at Plunge in Lithuania at the beginning of 1963. Each regiment consisted of 2-3 divisions, each division consisting of an emplacement with four launchers. Therefore a regiment had 8-12 launchers. Maximum deployment of all types of R-12 amounted to 608 launchers, but replacement of the R-12 by the Pioner solid propellant missile began in 1978. The last R-12U was destroyed under the INF Treaty that eliminated intermediate range nuclear weapons in Europe on 21 May 1990.

Manufacturer: Yangel. Liftoff Thrust: 637.000 kN (143,203 lbf). Total Mass: 41,750 kg (92,040 lb). Core Diameter: 1.65 m (5.41 ft). Total Length: 22.00 m (72.00 ft). Span: 1.83 m (6.00 ft). Standard warhead mass: 1,600 kg (3,500 lb). Maximum range: 2,150 km (1,330 mi). Number Standard Warheads: 1. Standard warhead yield: 2,300 KT. Standard warhead CEP: 2.40 km (1.40 mi). Boost Propulsion: Storable liquid rocket, IRFNA/Kerosene+UDMH. Boost engine: RD-214. Guidance: Command Link + Autopilot.

• Stage Number: 1. 1 x Stage: R-12. Gross Mass: 34,610 kg (76,300 lb). Empty Mass: 4,810 kg (10,600 lb). Thrust (vac): 625.517 kN (140,622 lbf). Isp: 235 sec. Burn time: 108 sec. Isp(sl): 210 sec. Diameter: 1.60 m (5.20 ft). Span: 1.80 m (5.90 ft). Length: 18.00 m (59.00 ft). Propellants: Nitric acid/Kerosene. No Engines: 1. Engine: RD-214. Other designations: 8K63. Payload 390 kg. Range 1500 km. Maximum altitude 398 km. Time of flight 11.8 minutes. Max velocity at burnout 3530 m/s. Accuracy 6 km in range, 5 km laterally. Source: wall chart, Russian Space Agency HQ, Moscow.

1953 February 13 - Launch Vehicle: R-7, R-5, R-11, R-12, EKR.

• Authorisation for development of Soviet intermediate and intercontinental range missiles. Nation: USSR. Council of Soviet Ministers (SM) Decree 'On approval of work on themes T1 and T2, on approval of work on the R-5, R-11, and EKR missiles, and on transferring draft project work for the R-12 from NII-88 to SKB-586' was issued. The decree set forth three phases of state trials tests for the R-5 missile.References: 474.

• Khrushchev and Ustinov decide to create additional independent missile design bureaux Nation: USSR. Khrushchev desired to decentralise the missile industry, since a single nuclear bomb on Moscow would wipe out Korolev’s factories. Ustinov was requested to draw up a plan for two additional completely independent missile design bureaux, one in the south of the Soviet Union, the other in the Urals. It was also envisioned a third bureau would be built in the east, in Siberia, but this was never done. This effort cost tens of billions of roubles. While the managers and lead technical staff would be taken from Korolev’s bureau, the working engineers, technicians, and workers for the bureau and associated factories would be recruited locally at each site. This would avoid the additional expense of building extra housing. Korolev fought to keep control, wanting to make the new bureaux just branches of his own, but Khrushchev was adamant that only completely autonomous organisations would be acceptable. Yangel was easily selected for the southern bureau, and the young Makeyev was a more contentious selection for the Ural bureau.References: 539.

• R-12 development authorised. Nation: USSR. Decree 'On the Creation and preparation of the R-12 (8K63) missile--start of work an the R-12' was issued. References: 474.

• Soviet Leadership tours Korolev's design bureau Nation: USSR. Khrushchev, Molotov, Bulganin, and other leaders are given a tour of Korolev’s OKB-1 in Kaliningrad. They are shown the R-1, R-2 and R-5 missiles as well as a mock-up of the R-7 and are awed. Ustinov reports that only five warheads would be needed to destroy Britain, and seven to nine for France. The need for the R-12 was discussed - the longer range was essential so that the missiles could be based farther from NATO’s borders (the experience of the German invasion and quick destruction of forward-based units and equipment was on everyone’s minds).References: 539.

• Test mission Nation: USSR. Agency: MVS. Apogee: 500 km (310 mi). References: 1836.

• USSR sells R-12 missiles to China. Nation: USSR. Ministry of Armaments Decree 'On transfer of two R-12 missiles to China (on August 6)' was issued. References: 474.

• Test mission Nation: USSR. Agency: MVS. Apogee: 500 km (310 mi). References: 1836.

• Project 581 Nation: China. Spacecraft: Project 581. The first project to build a Chinese satellite is set in motion.

• Project 581 pressure. Nation: China. Spacecraft: Project 581. Chairman Mao says that China must orbit a satellite at the earliest possible date in order to match the Americans and Russians.

• Khrushchev conceives of use of silos for Soviet long range missiles Nation: USSR. Khrushchev independently conceived of the idea of storing and launching ballistic missiles from subterranean silos. He called Korolev to his dacha in the Crimea. Korolev told him his idea was not feasible. He then called Barmin and Yangel. Barmin said he would study the idea. Yangel remained silent. Some time later Khrushchev’s son saw a drawing of the same concept in a US aerospace magazine. He informed his father, who ordered immediate crash development of the first generation of Soviet missile silos.References: 539.

• Chinese plan satellite launch by December 1959 Nation: China. Spacecraft: Project 581. Tsien and his colleagues set an initial goal of launching a satellite by the end of 1959. They see no reason to copy the antiquated R-2 missile being transferred from Russia, and want to make a great leap to an intermediate range missile capable of serving as the first stage of a satellite launcher. It very quickly becomes that this is much too ambitious and totally impossible.

• R-12 accepted into military service. Nation: USSR. Decree 'On adoption of the R-12 into armaments' was issued. References: 474.

• Decision to withhold R-12 and nuclear warhead drawing package from China over Sidewinder affair Nation: China. Spacecraft: Project 581. The Soviet Central Committee advises China it will not provide prototype or drawings of atomic bombs as agreed previously. Khrushchev promised China that he would provide the drawing package for the R-12 IRBM as soon as testing was completed. However then came the affair of the Sidewinder. At the end of 1958 or early 1959 a complete missile fell into the hands of the Chinese. They promised to provide it to the Russians, but then dragged their feet. They were finally told in February 1959 that unless they provided the Sidewinder, they would not be given the R-12 package. The missile was finally delivered but it was found that the key crystal in the infrared homing sensor was missing. The Chinese had also been caught disassembling a P-15 cruise missile at a training facility in China. It had taken the Russian trainers two days to get it reassembled correctly. Therefore on June 20 1959 the decision was taken not to transfer the R-12 or the promised nuclear warhead design to China.

  The Soviets created a new design bureau to copy the Sidewinder. Fabrication of the crystal for the infrared sensor was the main obstacle. The initial production batches had a 99% rejection rate. A state commission was set up to get to the bottom of the problem, but couldn’t find a solution. The main problem seemed to be low-quality ore provided by the mines.References: 87.

• Test mission Nation: USSR. Agency: MVS. References: 1468.

• Test mission Nation: USSR. Agency: MVS. Apogee: 500 km (310 mi). References: 1468.

• Test mission Nation: USSR. Agency: MVS. Apogee: 500 km (310 mi). References: 1468.

• Development of Silo-Launched IRBM's and ICBM's approved. Nation: USSR. State Committee for Defence Technology (GKOT) Decree 'On creation of shaft units (silos) for the R-12, R-14, R-16, and R-9 missiles' was issued. References: 474.

• Soviet/China break. Nation: China. In the preceding months relations between the Soviet advisors and Chinese engineers had been strained by increasing Soviet secrecy. The Russians catch Chinese students at the Moscow Aviation Institute stealing restricted missile data. Finally Khrushchev declared the suspension of military assistance to China. All 1,343 Soviet specialists are withdrawn from the Fifth Academy in Beijing and return to Russia. They leave behind 343 uncompleted contracts. A total of 257 technical development projects were cancelled as a result.

• Last Russian advisers leave China. Nation: China. Program: Long March. The last Russian technical advisers are withdrawn from China. References: 87.

• V-1000 target mission Nation: USSR. Agency: OKB-30. Apogee: 500 km (310 mi). References: 1589.

• V-1000 target mission Nation: USSR. Agency: OKB-30. Apogee: 460 km (280 mi). References: 1589.

• V-1000 target mission Nation: USSR. Agency: OKB-30. Apogee: 500 km (310 mi). References: 1589.

• Nuclear test mission Nation: USSR. Agency: RVSN. Apogee: 100 km (60 mi). Launched from Novaya Zemlya test site References: 411.

• Nuclear test mission Nation: USSR. Agency: RVSN. Apogee: 100 km (60 mi). Launched from Novaya Zemlya test site References: 411.

• Nuclear Test K-1 Nuclear Test mission Nation: USSR. Agency: RVSN. Apogee: 300 km (180 mi). Two R-12's (other sources say R-5M's or an R-12 and an R-5M) were salvo fired, at least one with a live nuclear warhead, to Sary Shagan to support ABM-related research on the effects of nuclear explosions on rocket systems. References: 411.

• First launch of R-12U from silo. Nation: USSR. References: 89.

• MP-1 re-entry vehicle test flight Nation: USSR. Agency: RVSN. Apogee: 405 km (251 mi). References: 1816.

• Nuclear Test K-5 Nuclear Test mission Nation: USSR. Agency: RVSN. Apogee: 60 km (37 mi). R-12 test flight with live nuclear warhead, successful warhead detonation in Semipalitinsk at an altitude of 60 km. High altitude test designed to study electromagnetic pulse effects on electronics, especially ABM system radars. Communications were disrupted over a wide area for over an hour.References: 98, 118.

• M-12 re-entry vehicle test flight Nation: USSR. Payload: Subscale Raketoplan Chelomei. Class: Manned. Type: Spaceplane. Spacecraft: Raketoplan. Agency: RVSN. Apogee: 405 km (251 mi). First flight of Raketoplan Chelomei, launched at 16:40 Moscow Time. The reentry vehicle was destroyed during reentry. Maximum Altitude - 400 km. Maximum Speed - 14,400 kph. Distance of free flight - 1900 km. References: 98, 290, 1836.

• R-12U, R-14U, and R-16U silo-based missiles accepted into service. Nation: USSR. Decree 'On adoption into armaments of the R-12U, R-14U, and R-16U shaft versions' was issued. References: 474.

• R-12U and R-14U accepted into military service. Nation: USSR. Decree 'On adoption of the R-12U and R-14U shaft versions into armaments' was issued. References: 474.

• BOR-1 re-entry vehicle test flight Nation: USSR. Agency: RVSN. Apogee: 70 km (43 mi). References: 1585.

• McDowell, Jonathan, Jonathan's Space Home Page, Harvard University, 1997-present. Jonathan McDowell's complete on-line listing of all objects orbited and over 20,000 rocket launches Accessed at: http://www.planet4589.org/jsr.html.

• Semenov, Yu. P., S P Korolev Space Corporation Energia, RKK Energia, 1994. ISBN: 1896522815. Dual English/Russian language picture book of the history of the Energia Corporation. Many unique photos and drawings of Korolev's rockets and spacecraft. Republished by Apogee books in 2000. More at amazon.com...

• Pervov, Mikhail, Raketnoye Oruzhiye RVSN, Violanta, Moscow, 1999.. Narrative overview of the missiles of the Russian strategic missile forces.

• Karpenko, A V, Utkin, A F and Popov,A D, Otechestvenniye strategischeskiye raketnoye kompleks, Sankt-Peterburg: Nevskii bastion; Gangut 1999.. Well-illustrated encyclopedia of the missiles of the Russian strategic missile forces.

• "Personal communication", Personal communication from family member or person directly involved with the article..